Commercial Study Guide

Certificates and Documents

Pilot documents
Medical, Government issued Photo ID, pilot certificate
Notify FAA of change in permanent address – 30 days
Aircraft documents
Airworthiness Certificate (does not expire but can be revoked if the aircraft no longer meets its
approved design and/or is not in an airworthy condition)
Radio Station License (only required if aircraft leaves the United States)
Registration (Valid for 3 years)
Operating Limitations (Chapter 2 - AFM)
Weight and Balance (Chapter 6 - AFM)
Privileges, Limitations, and Currency
Commercial operator is a person who, for compensation or hire, engages in the carriage by
aircraft in air commerce of persons or property. Limitations - without instrument rating a pilot
may not carry passengers more than 50nm or at night.
Currency
3 takeoffs and landings (90 days)
- Night / tailwheel must be full stop
6HIT - Six approaches, holding procedures, intercepting, and tracking with nav aids in the
previous 6 months required for instrument currency
Flight Review (every 2 years) - conducted by an examiner, an approved pilot check airman, or
the U.S. Armed Force
– 1-hour ground / 1-hour flight. Cannot fail – continue until proficient.
Private and Common Carriage (AC 120-12A)
Private: carrying persons or property for a select clientele without holding out, has few select
long term customers, number of customers must be small, or it can imply willingness to contact
anybody.
Common: A willingness to hold out, to transport persons or property, from place to place, for
compensation or hire.
What can a commercial pilot hold out for?
119.1e outlines the operations in which a commercial pilot can fly for hire without operating
under part 121 or part 135. Some of these include:
- CFI
- Nonstop air tours (≤ 30 seats, ≤ 7500lbs max payload, within 25sm of the airport)
- Ferry flights
- Crop dusting
- Banner towing
- Firefighting
- Aerial photography or survey
- Power line/pipeline patrol
- Skydiving (within 25sm of the airport)
Endorsements / Ratings
High Performance – more than 200 horsepower
High Altitude – flight above FL250
Tailwheel – aircraft has tailwheel landing gear configuration
Complex – Flaps, Retractable Landing Gear, Constant Speed Propellor
TAA (doesn’t require an endorsement) – PFD, MFD, 2-axis autopilot
Type Rating – More than 12,500 lbs., turbojet engine, or the FAA requires

Medical Certificates
1st Class 2nd Class 3rd Class
Under 12 12 60
40
Over 40 6 12 24
Airline Transport Pilot (Must Commercial (Must be 18) Private (must be 17)
be 23 - 21 for Restricted ATP)

BasicMed – fly with only a physical (without an FAA medical certificate)

Operating limitations:
- Carries no more than five passengers
- Operates under VFR or IFR, within the United States, at less than 18,000 feet MSL, not
exceeding 250 knots.
- Flight not operated for compensation or hire
Statement of Demonstrated Ability (SODA) – granted to a person whose disqualifying
condition is nonprogressive and is capable of performing airman duties without endangering
public safety. Does not expire unless condition worsens.

Airworthiness Requirements

Required Inspections
GPS (28 days)
Airworthiness Directives (As needed)
Annual (12 calendar months)
VOR (30 days)
100-hour (for hire) – may be exceeded by 10 hours to fly to a place where the inspection can be
done. Excess time must be included in computing the next 100 hours of time in service.
Altimeter/Static (24 CM)
Transponder (24 CM)
ELT (1 CM) - must replace/charge batteries after 1 hours cumulative use or ½ battery life

Progressive Inspection (91.409) - allows for more frequent but shorter inspection phases as long
as all items required for the annual and 100-hour are inspected within the required time.
Preventive Maintenance (91.43) – simple maintenance that a certified pilot can perform
Add - oil/air struts, hydraulic fluid, and simple fabric patches
Lubricate - items not requiring disassembly, and bearings
Replace/clean/repair – tires, defective safety wire/cotter, safety belts, bulbs, reflectors,
lenses (position and landing lights), spark plugs, hose connections, batteries, and cowling
Inoperative Equipment (91.213)
Minimum Equipment List (MEL) – list of equipment we can fly with inoperative
Configuration Deviation List (CDL) – list of external equipment we can fly with missing
MTSU does not have an MEL therefore 91.213 states we can use the following:
91.205
Kinds of Operation (POH 2.13)
Airworthiness Directives (FAA.gov)
VFR Day Type Certificate (FAA.gov)

Inoperative equipment is legal to fly – placard or remove and change weight and
balance/equipment list

91.205 – Required Equipment

VFR Day VFR Night IFR
Airspeed Indicator Fuses/Circuit Breaker (11) Generator / alternator
Altimeter Landing Light (for hire) Radio & Nav. Equipment (12)
Temperature Gauge (3) Anticollision Lights (7) Altimeter (13)
Tachometer (1) Position Lights Ball (slip-skid indicator)
Oil Pressure Gauge (2) Source of Electrical Power Clock (hours/mins/seconds)
Oil Temperature Gauge (4) Attitude Indicator
Magnetic Direction Indicator Rate of Turn
Manifold Pressure Gauge (5) Directional Gyro
Safety Belt (9) DME (FL240)
Shoulder Harness (10)
Fuel Gauge
Landing Gear Position Indicator (6)
ELT (91.207)
Anticollision Lights (7)
Flotation Device (8)

(1) Each engine

(2) Each engine using pressure system
- engine uses a pressurized oil lubrication system vs splash lubrication
(3) Each liquid-cooled engine
(4) Each air-cooled engine
(5) Each altitude engine
- forced induction such as a turbocharger – naturally aspirated engines do not require this
(6) has retractable landing gear
(7) Red or white. Can be flown inoperative if flying to a location for repairs. Certificated after
March 11, 1996.
(8) For hire and beyond power-off glide to shore
(9) Each occupant older than 2 years.
(10) Fronts seat (after July 18, 1978); all seats (after December 12, 1986)
(11) One spare set of fuses or three spare fuses of each kind and must be accessible
- set refers to each piece of equipment (PFD, landing light, flaps, etc.) while each kind
refers to each amperage (30, 10, 5, etc.)
(12) Navigation Equipment suitable for the route to be flown
(13) Sensitive altimeter adjustable for barometric pressure

Types of Airworthiness Directives

Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NPRM) - After an unsafe condition is discovered, a proposed
solution is published as an NPRM
Final Rule - After the comment period closes, the final rule is prepared, considering all
substantive comments received, with the rule perhaps being changed as warranted by the
comments.
Emergency AD’s - An Emergency AD is issued when an unsafe condition exists that requires
immediate action by an owner/operator.

Special flight permit – fly back to an airport with maintenance in an unairworthy condition

Weather Information

Flight Category Ceilings (AGL) Visibility

VFR (Visual Flight Rules) Above 3,000 ft. Greater than 5sm
MVFR (Marginal Visual Flight Rules) 1,000 – 3,000 ft. 3-5sm
IFR (Instrument Flight Rules) 500 – 1,000 ft. 1-3sm
LIFR (Low Instrument Flight Rules) Below 500 ft. Less than 1sm

Special VFR (SVFR) – if unable to remain VFR in controlled airspace – pilots can request a
SVFR clearance which will allow them to fly as long as they maintain 1sm visibility and clear of
clouds.

Types of Briefings
Standard Briefing - planning a flight and you have not received a previous briefing
Abbreviated Briefing- update a previous briefing or need one or two specific items
Outlook Briefing- proposed time of departure is six or more hours from the time of the
briefings.
Reports, Charts, Forecasts:
AIRMET (Valid 6 hours) - significant weather phenomena at lower intensities. These
weather conditions can affect all aircraft but are potentially hazardous to aircraft with limited
capability.
(T) - moderate turbulence, sustained surface winds of 30 knots or greater, and/or non-convective
low-level wind shear.
(Z) - moderate icing and provides freezing level heights.
(S) - IFR conditions and/or extensive mountain obscurations.
SIGMET (Valid 4 hours) – non-convective weather potentially hazardous to all types of aircraft.
- Severe icing
- Severe or extreme turbulence or Clear Air Turbulence (CAT)
- Dust storms or sandstorms (visibility below 3 miles)
- Volcanic Ash
Convective SIGMET (Valid 2 hours) - convective weather significant to all aircraft. Always
implies severe or greater turbulence, severe icing, or low-level wind shear (LLWS).
- Severe thunderstorms due to:
- Surface winds greater or equal to 50 knots
- Hail at the surface greater than 3/4 inch in diameter
- Tornadoes
- Embedded thunderstorms
- Line of thunderstorms (at least 60 miles long affecting 40% of its length)
- Area of thunderstorms producing heavy or greater precipitation (more than 40% of an area of
at least 3000 square miles)

ATIS (Automated Terminal Information system) - controlled airspace

- D-ATIS – Digital ATIS = onboard equipment can use it.
AWOS (Automated Weather Observation System) - regulated by FAA
ASOS (Automated Service Observation System) - regulated by government
METAR (Aviation Routine Weather Report) – scheduled METARs are published every hour.
Non-scheduled METARS (SPECI) are issued when there is a significant change in one or more
reported element since the last scheduled METAR.
- P0005 - .05 inches of rain
TAF (Terminal Aerodrome Forecast) - 5SM radius area around the station. Issued 4 times a day,
every six hours and normally cover a 24 or 30 hour forecast period.
- ACSL (Alto Cumulus Standing Lenticular)q
Winds & Temperature Aloft – issued 4 times (same as TAF)

Fronts
Warm front – warm, less dense air masses that encounter cold,
heavy air masses, pushing up and over the colder air.
Cold front – cold, dense air masses that encounter warm, light air
masses, pushing the warm air up into the atmosphere.
Stationary front – both cold and warm fronts are remaining
stationary.
Occluded front – there are two types of occluded fronts and in both
cases a cold front overtakes a warm front.
- cold occluded front – the “cool” air that the warm front is
overtaking is warmer than the cold front. In this case the
cold front would lift both the warm front and the “cool” air
behind it.
- warm occluded front – the “cold” air that the warm front is
overtaking is colder than the cold front. In this case the cold
front would lift the warm front but ride up the “colder” air
behind it.

Pressures
(H) High pressure - down, clockwise, and out
- areas of dry descending air, typically clearer skies, associated with good weather
conditions
(L) Low pressure - up, counterclockwise, and in
- clouds and precipitation, typically associated with bad weather conditions
Isobars – lines of constant pressure. Close isobars depict a steep pressure gradient. Close isobars
usually indicate a probability of higher wind speeds.

Standard Pressures
29.92 Hg (inches mercury) – 1” Hg lost per 1,000ft
14.7 PSI (pounds per square inch)
1013.2 millibars
Stability
the atmosphere's resistance to vertical
motion

Primary causes of vertical lifting

Convergence - a net inflow of air usually
associated with a low (L)
- typically, much weaker than the
vertical lifting associated with
convective processes. For example,
cirrostratus clouds, are typically
less vertically developed than
convective clouds.
Divergence - a net outflow of air usually
associated with a high (H)
Orographic - air is forced up or down by
terrain
Fronts - act like orographic lifting by
forcing air up/down the front
Convective - if air is warmer than its
surroundings, it will rise until reaching an
equilibrium temperature

Lapse Rate – helps us determine atmospheric stability

- winds and temp chart (aviationweather.gov) can help determine this.
Lapse rate is affected by moisture content of the air
Dry lapse rate - 3° per 1,000'
Moist lapse rate - 1.1 to 2.8° per 1,000'
Average lapse rate - 2° per 1,000'
 Cross Country Flight Planning

Maximum Elevation Figure (MEF)

Manmade obstacle - add 100ft for
possible error to the highest obstacle
then raise to next 100’ foot level.
Natural terrain obstacle – same
procedure as above but add an addition
200 ft.

Altitudes
Indicated – altitude indicated on
altimeter (generally corrected for local
barometric pressure).
- above FL180, set altimeter to
29.92 to display pressure
altitude.
Pressure – altitude above the standard
datum plane (15 degrees at 29.9).
Density Altitude – pressure altitude
corrected for non-standard temperature.
↑ density altitude = ↑ temp = ↓
dense air= ↓ performance
True Altitude – height MSL
Absolute Altitude – height AGL

Airspeeds
Indicated (IAS) – airspeed on airspeed
indicator
True (TAS) – speed aircraft is flying
through the air. IAS corrected for
temperature, pressure, and altitude.
- for every thousand feet above
sea level, true airspeed is about
2% higher than indicated
airspeed.
Groundspeed (GS) – speed aircraft is
moving over the ground. TAS corrected
for winds.
Calibrated (CAS) – IAS corrected for
instrument errors.
- generally, there is a bigger
difference at greater angles of
attack.
Equivalent (EAS) – CAS corrected for adiabatic compressible flow at the altitude of flight.
- Below speeds of about 200 knots CAS and at altitudes below 10,000', the difference
between CAS and EAS is negligible.
Mach - The ratio between the true air speed (TAS) and the local speed of sound (LSS).
- Approx. 767 mph and depends on temperature

Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM)

DECIDE
Detect that a change has occurred
Estimate the need to counter the change
Choose a desirable outcome
Identify solutions
Do the necessary actions
Evaluate the effects of the actions

5 P’s
Plan – have a plan for the flight
Preflight action (91.103)
Weather
Known ATC delays
Runway lengths and intended use
Alternate airports
Fuel requirements (MTSU – 1 hour)
Day - 30 mins
Night – 45 mins
IFR – to destination then alternate plus 45 minutes (if required)
Takeoff and landing distance
Plane – inspections/documents/experience
Pilot – has required documents, currency, and is healthy
Passengers – ensure they are healthy as well
Programming - ensure you understand the avionics

PAVE (similar to 5P’s)

Pilot/Passenger
Aircraft
EnVironment (weather, terrain, airspace, day/night)
External Pressures (pressure to complete a flight – often at the expense of safety)

IMSAFE – are you fit to fly?

Illness
Medicine
Stress
Alcohol
Fatigue
Emotion / Eating
 Hazardous Attitudes Antidote
Resignation – What’s the use I’m not helpless. I can make a difference.
Anti-authority – Don’t tell me. Follow the rules. They are usually right.
Impulsivity - Do something quickly. Not so fast. Think first.
Invulnerability – It won’t happen to me. It could happen to me.
Macho – I can do it. Taking chances is foolish.

GPS, VOR, and Navigation Facilities

VOR (Very High Frequency (VHF) Omnidirectional Range) – compares the reference signal
(magnetic north) and the variable signal (rotates 360 degrees 30 times a second)
Nondirectional Beacon (NDB) – Requires Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)
Aircraft equipment includes a VOR antenna, a VOR frequency selector, and a cockpit
instrument. The instrument type varies but consists of one of the following: an Omni-Bearing
Indicator (OBI), Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) or a Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI), or a
combination of two different kinds.
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) - often is collocated with a VOR to give pilots a
precise indication of the aircraft's distance from the VOR station.

All original Standard Service Volumes (SSV) remain – a 70 nm vail was added to both Low and
High extending up to 18,000 ft. (high already goes out to 100 nm starting at 14,500 ft.)

Errors
- Line of sight - obscured by terrain or building
- Bending & scalloping - signal reflects off terrain and buildings
- Propeller Modulation – if signal passes through prop, arc modulation can be changed
 - if excessive fluctuation (6 degrees) occurs – try changing propeller rpm
- Cone of confusion - flying near the VOR (~1nm) will give erroneous readings
- Reverse Sensing - all radials are FROM the station; if flying inbound TO the station,
you must add/subtract 180 degrees to get your course)
- An HSI (Horizontal Situation Indicator) does not receive reverse sensing BUT if
you set your course in wrong the flight directory (autopilot) will follow it.
- If you fly outbound on a LOC, you will always receive reverse sensing therefore
if you are using autopilot you need to use the back course (BC) function when
flying a LOC BC approach.

VOR Checks (30 days)

B – Bench / Maintenance (+-4)
A - Airway (+- 6)
D - Dual (+- 4)
V- VOT (+-4)
A – Airborne (+- 6)
G - Ground (+-4)

Magnetic Compass Errors

Deviation- aircraft magnetic fields effect the compass (Not for us bc of magnetometer)
Variation- Difference between true and magnetic north
Magnetic dip- Compass tents to dip towards the magnetic pole
Oscillation- fluids in compass provide dampening
North south errors (UNOS)
Acceleration errors (ANDS)

GPS
WAAS (Wide Area Augmentation System) - improves accuracy, integrity, and availability
- Satellites – reference stations – master stations – uplink stations – geostationary satellite -
every satellite – WAAS capable GPS
24 satellite constellation
- Always has at least 6 satellites in range
RAIM (Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring)
- Fault Detection (at least 5 Satellites)
- Fault isolation (at least 6 satellites) – removes faulty satellite
LOI (loss of integrity) – GPS unreliable

National Airspace System

Classes and weather minimums

Categories - Regulatory and Non-regulatory
Types – Controlled, Uncontrolled, Special Use, Other
Controlled
Class A (FL 18000-60000)
- Mode C
- Two-way radio
 - Instrument rated
- IFR Flight Plan
- ADS-B
Class B (surface to 10,000 AGL – 30nm radius)
- ATC clearance
- Private license (unless endorsed)
- Two-way radio
- Mode C
- ADS-B (including Mode C Veil)
Class C (Inner circle (surface to 4000) – 5nm radius / Outer circle (1200-4000) – 10nm radius)
- Two-way radio
- Must be acknowledged to enter
- Mode C
- ADS-B or alert 1 hour before arrival (91.215 D3)
Class D (Surface to 2,500 – 4nm radius)
- two-way radio
- must be acknowledged to enter
Class E
- ADS-B
- 10,000 MSL and above unless below 2,500 AGL (conus only)
- 3,000-10,000 MSL 12 NM from coast
Uncontrolled
Class G
- None

Special use
Military Operations Area (MOA)
Controlled Firing Areas
Warning Area
Restricted Area
Alert Area
Prohibited Area
National Security Area (NSA)
Other
Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFR)
- Contact controlling agency if you need to fly through
Terminal Radar Service Area (TRSA), Military Training Route (MTR)
Wildlife & Recreational Area
Airport Advisory Area
Parachute Jump Aircraft Area
Published VFR Routes
Air Defense Identification Area (ADIZ)
Special Flight Rules Area (FAR 93 Special Air Traffic Rules)

Notice to Airmen (NOTAM)

NOTAM (D) – all navigational facilities, public use airports, seaports, and heliports in the U.S.
Chart supplement
- (U) NOTAMs - come from an outside source and which have not yet been verified by
management personnel
- (O) NOTAMs - information that doesn't fit NOTAM criteria but may be beneficial
information for pilots.
Flight Data Center (FDC) – regulatory; changes in charts, procedures, and airspace usage.
Pointer - highlights crucial information that should not be looked passed
Special Activity Airspace (SAA) - airspace is active outside it’s normally published times and
when required by the published schedule
Military NOTAMs - military navigational aids and airports located within the national airspace
system

Performance and Limitations

Four Forces of Flight
Lift
Newton’s 3rd law (resultant force) – for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
When relative wind pushes against the wing, it displaces the wing in the opposite vector with an
equal amount of force.
Bernoulli’s principle / Venturi (pressure differential) – the airfoil the laminar flow over the
upper surface will be restricted by both the camber of the wing and the surrounding turbulent air.
This restriction creates a venturi which results in a lower pressure and higher velocity air flow.
The relatively higher pressure under the wing will “push” the airfoil into the lower pressure.

Stall - when the airplane reaches the critical AOA; airflow separation occurs, and the aircraft
will no longer be able to produce enough lift to counter total weight.

Drag
Induced Drag - Drag as a result of the generation of lift. Induced drag greatly decreases with
ground effect and increased airspeed
Parasite drag
- Form drag- objects shape in terms of the relative wind. Sticking hand out of a window
palm first vs side first
 - Skin friction drag - wind flowing over the surfaces of an aircraft. Even if they don't
appear to be the surfaces of an aircraft are not smooth but rough
- Interference drag - generated by the mixing of airflow streamlines between airframe
components such as the wing and the fuselage or the landing gear strut and the fuselage.

Ground effect - ground effect is the reduction of induced drag as a result of flying wingspan
length above the ground for two primary reasons:
- The vortices generated from the high pressure on the bottom wing dissipate before they
can move to the lower pressure on top of the wing.
- Downwash moves more parallel to chord line which brings our rearward component of
lift forward.
Adverse Yaw - adverse yaw is the tendency of an airplane, when turning and banked, to go the
opposite direction. A byproduct of generating lift is drag, which means if you are banked to the
left - the right wing is producing more lift producing more induced drag, and the airplane will
yaw its nose to the right.
- the DA-40 uses an aileron paddle which causes the descending wing to produce a
corresponding amount of parasite drag.

Weight
CG – Center of Gravity
- An aft CG is better for cruise because it requires less tail down = less lift = less angle of
attack = less induced drag. Forward CG is more maneuverable but worse for cruise flight.
CP – Center of Pressure
Weight
Arm – distance from datum
Moment – Weight x Arm

Thrust
Turning tendencies
Torque- As you throttle up your engine for takeoff, the right-turning direction of your engine
and propeller forces the left side of your airplane down toward the runway.
P-Factor- downward moving propeller blade takes a bigger "bite" of air than the upward moving
blade
Gyroscopic precession- When you rotate a force is applied to the top of the propellor, the force
is then felt 90 degrees to the right and the airplane is forced to the left
Spiraling slip stream- The air from the prop corkscrews around the plane and hits the left side
of the tail which yaws the airplane left

Static Stability

Dynamic Stability
Load Factor

Maneuvering speed – speed at which the airplane will stall before exceeding its design limit-
load factor in turbulent conditions or when the flight controls are suddenly and fully deflected.
- A higher weight results in a higher maneuvering speed because the greater angle of attack
required results in the aircraft stalling at a higher airspeed.

Operation of Systems
Turbocharged – boosts MP to higher-than-sea-level MP
Turbonormalized – allows engine to maintain sea level MP at higher altitudes. At sea level the
waste gate is completely open, allowing all “boosted” pressure to escape. As altitude is increased
the wastegate will begin to close.
Critical Altitude - the wastegate will be completely closed and the engine will no longer
maintain sea level MP.
Maximum Service Ceiling – altitude where (Vy) airspeed will produce no more than a 100 fpm
climb at maximum weight while in a clean configuration with maximum continuous power.
Absolute Ceiling – altitude where the aircraft can go no higher.
Coffin Corner (occurs at absolute ceiling) – aircraft can neither slow down (without stalling)
nor speed up (without exceeding the max operating speed of the aircraft).

DA-40
V-speeds and definitions
Va (maneuvering speed) - 94-111 kts
Vfe (takeoff flaps) - 108 kts (landing flaps) – 91 kts
Vno (maximum structural cruising speed) - 129 kts
Vne (never exceed speed) - 178 kts
Vso (stall speed flap extended) - 49 kts
Vs1- (stall speed clean configuration) - 52 kts
Vr (rotate speed) - 59 kts
Vy (takeoff climb) - 66 kts
Vy (cruise climb) - 73 kts

Airframe and flight controls

Wingspan – 39 ft 2 in
Length - 26 ft 3 in
Height - 6 ft 6 in
Fuselage- T-tail design with a CFRP (carbon fiber reinforced plastic) and
GFRP (glass fiber reinforced plastic) sandwiched semi-monocoque
construction
Primary Flight Controls
Ailerons (Roll), Elevator (Pitch), Rudder (Yaw)
Secondary Flight Control
Flaps - 20 degrees (takeoff) and 42 (landing)
- Plain and Split
Trim – wheel and electric

Powerplant
Lycoming I0-360-M1A
- 180 Hp at sea level @
2700rpm
- Air-cooled
- Four-cylinder
- Four-stroke
- Horizontally opposed
- Direct drive
Propeller turns at the same speed as crankshaft / no reduction
gearing
- Fuel injection
Opposed to a carburetor which mixes fuel and oxygen
- Naturally aspirated
Air intake depends solely on atmospheric pressure and does not have forced induction
Propeller
Hartzell
- Two bladed
- Hydraulically regulated
- Length - 74 in
(aluminum) / 76 in
(composite)
- Constant speed propeller
Takeoff (high rpm - fine
prop) - flyweights go in,
oil goes out of and
spring forces piston
forward
Cruise (low rpm -
course prop) - flyweights
go out, oil goes into hub
and pulls the prop aft
- Lost oil - high rpm
Landing Gear
The landing gear consists of a main landing gear of sprung steel struts, and a free-castering nose
wheel which is sprung by an elastomer package.

Fuel
Engine driven (mechanical) and electric fuel pump
- 41.2 total - 40.2 useable
- 20.1 per side – can only read up to 17
- 100LL (low lead)
- Low fuel sensor at 3 gallons
- Max 10 gallon different between tank

Electrical
Alternator - 28volts // 70amps
Battery – 24 volts // 11 amp/hours

Flight instruments
Pitot Static and Gyroscopic Instruments
Gyroscopic- Attitude indicator, Heading Indicator, Turn Indicator
Principles - Rigidity in space and Precession
Attitude indicator – operates on the principle
of rigidity in space. Shows bank and pitch
information.
Heading indicator – operates on the
principle of rigidity in space. It only reflects
changes in heading but cannot measure the
heading directly.
Turn indicators – operates on the principle
of precision. Turn coordinators show rate-of-
turn and rate of roll.
Attitude Heading Reference System
(AHRS) – Provides more accurate and
reliable attitude and heading data than
traditional separate gyro systems.
Pitot Static- Altimeter, VSI, Airspeed
Indicator
Air Data Computers (ADC) – replaces the
mechanical pitot-static instruments. The
ADC receives inputs from the pitot, static
and outside temperature ports and computes
airspeed, true airspeed, vertical speed,
altitude, OAT.

Aeromedical Factors

Hypoxia and hyperventilation

Hypoxia- deficiency in the amount of oxygen reaching the tissues
Types:
Hypoxic - with increasing altitude, the partial pressure of oxygen gets lower, and the lungs
cannot effectively transfer oxygen from the ambient air to the blood to be carried to all tissues in
the body (Can be caused by operating at high altitudes in an unpressurized aircraft)
Hypemic - there is an adequate supply of oxygen to breathe, the blood's capacity to carry the
oxygen to the cells has been impaired (Can be caused inhaling carbon monoxide)
Stagnant - reduction in blood flow which results in not enough oxygen reaching the cells of their
body tissues (Caused by failure of heart to pump effectively
and by very cold temps)
Histotoxic - body cells unable to use O2 even though enough
is delivered (can be caused by alcohol or narcotics use)

Euphoria- Giddy and happy feeling as O2 decreases

Cyanosis- Lips and fingers turn blue due to lack of oxygen
Hyperventilation- increased rate in depth of breathing, increase in the amount of carbon dioxide
expelled.

Supplemental Oxygen requirements

From 12,500 to 14,000 - in excess of 30 minutes flight crew is required to have oxygen
Above 14,000 - flight crew must have supplemental oxygen at all times
Above 15,000 - all members of the flight must be provided with supplemental oxygen

Types of Oxygen Systems

Continuous flow system - a constant flow of air comes out. Wasteful- goes up to 25000 ft
Cannula good (nosepiece) to FL180 or rebreather bag good to FL250
Diluter demand - forms a seal around the face. Only supplies oxygen as you breathe. Only good
to 40000 feet then there is not enough pressure to force the oxygen into your lungs.
Pressure demand - forces pressurized oxygen into your lungs
Aviators breathing oxygen -has control on moisture content, green bottles

Scuba Diving (FAR 8-1-3)

Controlled Ascent (24 hours) - procedure where divers stop at depth intervals to decompress
Uncontrolled Ascent (12 hours) - Uncontrolled ascent rate, typically not as deep
Above 8,000 (24 hours)
Symptoms of decompression sickness also known as the bends can be greatly enhanced with
altitude - Nitrogen build up in the lungs

Pressurization
The process of pressurizing the inside of an aircraft’s fuselage to allow for increased levels of
oxygen so humans can breathe at higher altitudes
Time of useful consciousness - The time from when normal air supply is interrupted or you are
exposed to a low oxygen environment until the time where the ability to function usefully where
the pilot can make corrective and protective actions is lost

Night Flying
Night - End of evening civil twilight and the beginning of morning civil twilight
Sunset to sunrise; 1 hour before to 1 hour after sunset
Civil Twilight - time when sun is around 6 degrees below the horizon, typically about 30
minutes prior to sunrise and about 30 minutes after sunset
Position lights - required from sunset to sunrise
Anti-collision - required sunset to sunrise (strobes on the taxiway/ramp at night should be turned
off to prevent impairing another pilot’s vision)
Night currency (61.57)- 3 landings made to a FULL STOP during the period beginning one
hour after sunset and ending one hour before sunrise.
- If carrying passengers at night but not night current - land within 1 hour after sunset

Sensory Systems
Vision (eyes) - sense position based on what is seen
Cones – primarily responsible for color (centered focus)
Rods – primarily responsible for light reception (offset focus)
Vestibular (ears) - three canals in the inner ear, arranged at approximately right angles to each
other, detect the roll, pitch, and yaw axis. The Cupola rests upon sensory hairs located at the
end of the vestibular nerves; the movement of these hairs within the fluid causes sensations of
motion. It may take about 15-20 seconds for the fluid in the ear canal to reach the same speed as
the canal's motion; this mismatch between what the fluid/hairs are telling your body and what is
happening can lead to disorientation
Somatosensory (skin) - nerves in the skin, muscles, and joints that, along with hearing, sense
position based on gravity, feeling, and sound

Illusions
Inversion - a change from climb to level flight can cause the illusion of tumbling backwards,
therefore the pilot creates a nose low attitude to fix.
- Opposite effect for descent (tumbling forward/nose high attitude fix)
Coriolis – If pilot is in a constant bank and turns their head it can create the illusion of the plane
moving in a different direction.
Elevator - Vertical acceleration (updraft/downdraft) can cause the pilot to think he is
climbing/descending and therefore fixes by putting the nose down (updraft) or up (downdraft)
False horizon - sloping clouds, dark spread of ground lights, etc. can create a false horizon
which can put the pilot in dangerous attitudes
Leans – returning to level flight after a prolonged turn can create the illusion of turning in the
opposite direction
Autokinesis- If staring to long at a stationary light it may appear to move, making the pilot
follow and lose heading
Graveyard spiral/spin (continuation of Leans) - as the aircraft loses altitude (because of the
bank) the pilot pulls back on the yoke tightening the turn and causing more altitude loss
potentially developing into a spin.
Somatogravic - acceleration can cause the pilot to think he's in a nose up attitude, corrects by
pushing nose low (deceleration can cause opposite effect)

Empty field myopia – eyes do not focus due to a lack a focal point
Flicker Vertigo – quick flashing light such as sunlight flashing through propeller

Radio Communications and ATC Light Signals

 Traffic Patterns

AC 90-66B - Pattern entries

Airport Base

Runway Incursion - any occurrence at an airport involving the incorrect presence of an

aircraft, vehicle, or person on the protected area of a surface designated for the landing and
take-off of aircraft.

Airport Lighting
Taxiway edge lights - blue
Runway threshold/end lights - red/green
Runway Centerline lights - white until last 3,000 feet, Alternating white and red for next 2,000
feet after, all red for last 1000 ft.
Runway edge lights - white until last 2000 feet of runway, Yellow for last 2000 ft.
2,000 ft. runway - yellow lights on second half of runway

Emergency Operations

Essential bus (30 minutes) – reduces power load to only essential equipment
Emergency Horizon Switch (1 hour and 30 minutes) – powers attitude indicator and flood light
Minimum Fuel - fuel supply has reached a state where, upon reaching destination, the pilot
cannot accept any undue delay.
Fuel Emergency (MAYDAY) - priority handling by ATC is both required and expected

Lost Procedures
Climb
Communicate
Confess
Comply
Conserve