2.

INTRODUCTION TO
COMPUTER
 History of the Computer

 It is devided in to 4 categories.
 Pre Mechanical Era(before1450 )
 Mechanical Era(from1450 to1840)
 Electro Mechanical Era(from1840 to1940)
 Electronic Era(1940 onwrads)
 The Premechanical Age

 First numbering system was introduced

 Egyptian method
 From 1 – 9 used horizontal lines, then for 10 they used U or circle,
 The Hindu Arabic method was then introduced
 numbe r ‘0’was introduced In the year 875.
 The Premechanical Age

 Abacus was introduced in 300s.

 The Premechanical Age

Abacus
 It was created by different nations according to their needs
 mesapothenians
 Egyptians
 Persians
 Greeks
 Romans
 Chinese
 source- [Link]
 Mechanical Era

 People tend to use mechanical things to do their calculations

 in1450 John Guttenberg introduced the printing machine
 in1600 William Autered introduced Sliding Ruler.
 Mechanical Era

 In 1617 John Napier introduced Logorithms

 Mechanical Era

 In1642 Blaise Pascal introduced the first mechanical calculater Pascaliene

. It could only do additions and substractions.
 Mechanical Era

Pascaline matchine and the mechanism

 Mechanical Era

 Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716) invented Punch Card System which is
developed using the pascaline machine. It could calculate mulplications and
divisions then in 1674.
 Mechanical Era

 in1830 Charles Babbage introduced Analytical Engine which can solve

mathematical operations and store data
 Charles Babbage introduced the abstract model of computing input,
output and process
 ‘he is called the father of computer
 Ada Augusta Lovelace became the first programmer and helped Charles
Babbage
 Mechanical Era

Analytical Engine Charles Babbage Ada Augusta Lovelace

 Mechanical Era

Difference Engine Analytical Engine

 Mechanical Era

In 1830 Joseph Marie Jacquard's created ‘the Loom’ machine using punch card
technology
 Electro Mechanical era

 Created machines using electronic power than mechanical power.

 Alexandro Volta invented battery(in1800)
 Telegraph method was invented(in1800)
 Samuel Moors invented moors signal method
 In 1876 Alxander Grahambell invented Telephone
 Electro Mechanical era

 In 1880 Hermann Hollerith invented Punch Card system.

 It could keep data and process.
Electro Mechanical era

In 1890 IBM (International Business

Machines Corporation) was initialized
 Electro Mechanical era

 In 1906 Lee De Forest invented the Vacuum Tube.

First Vacuum Tube

 Electro Mechanical era

 In 1939 Howard Aiken invented first automated computer- Automated

Controlled Calculator’ or Mark1.
 Electronic Era

 In 1946 ENIAC - Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, the first programmable
general purpose digital electronic computer was invented.

The ENIAC team (Feb 14, 1946). Left to right: J. Presper Eckert, Jr.; John Grist Brainerd; Sam Feltman;
Herman H. Goldstine; John W. Mauchly; Harold Pender; Major General G. L. Barnes; Colonel Paul N.
Gillon.
 Electronic Era

ENIAC
 Electronic Era

 In 1949 EDVAC - Electronic Discreet Variable Automatic

Computer became the first computer to store programs.
 Electronic Era
 in1951 UNIVAC - Universal Automatic Computer I first
general purpose electronic digital computer
 Electronic Era

 In 1959 IBM introduced Stretch Computer.

 Electronic Era

 In 1975 MIT manufactured ‘ALTAIR 8800’ a micro computer.

 Electronic Era

 In 1981 IBM introduced IBM – PC (Personal Computer) worlds first personal

computer.
 Electronic Era

 In 1984 APPLE cooperation manufactured Macintosh, a personal

computer which had a graphical user interface
Generations of Computers and their Technologies

1. 1st generation – Vacuum Tubes

2. 2nd generation – Transistors
3. 3rd generation – Integrated Circuits
4. 4th generation – Micro Processor
5. 5th generation – Artificial Intelligence
 VACUUM TUBE
A vacuum tube, electron tube, valve (British usage), or tube (North America), is a device that controls
electric current flow in a high vacuum between electrodes to which an electric potential difference
has been applied.

TRANSISTER
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electrical signals and power. The transistor
is one of the basic building blocks of modern electronics. It is composed of semiconductor material, usually
with at least three terminals for connection to an electronic circuit.

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
sometimes called a chip, microchip or microelectronic circuit, is a semiconductor wafer on which
thousands or millions of tiny resistors, capacitors, diodes and transistors are fabricated.
Integrated circuits are manufactured with below versions
MSI- Medium Scale Integration
LDI- Large Scale Integration
VLSI- Very Large Scale Integration
MICROPROCESSOR
is a computer processor where the data processing logic and control is included on a single
integrated circuit, or a small number of integrated circuits. The microprocessor contains the
arithmetic, logic, and control circuitry required to perform the functions of a computer's central
processing unit.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
The term "Artificial Intelligence" refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by
machines, especially computer systems. It also includes Expert systems, voice recognition, machine
vision, and natural language processing (NLP)
Generations Technology Software Characteristics Systems

1st Generation • Vacuum Tubes Machine Language • Excess heat • ENIAC

1940-1956 • Punch cards for • Slow perfoming • EDVAC
input, process, • Large in size • EDSAC
output, storage. • Not portable • UNIVAC
• Difficult to • IBM701
transport
• High power
consumption
• High price
Generations Technology Software Characteristics Systems

2nd Generation • Transistors Assembly Language • Smaller in size • Honey well 400
1956-1963 • Tape High level • Low heat • IBM 7030,1620,7094
• Floppy disk programming • Faster perfoming • CDC 1604,3600
languages than 1st gen • UNIVAC1108
• Large in size • LARC
• Low power
consumption
• Price low
Generations Technology Software Characteristics Systems

3rd Generation • Intigrated Circuits • Operating system • low heat • IBM 360/370
1964-1975 • High capacity • Developed high • high perfoming • PDP -8
Storage devices level programming • Smaller in size • PDP
• Key board and languages. • portable • CDC 6600
mouse • High performing • Easy to transport
programs • Low power
consumption
Generations Technology Software Characteristics Systems

4th Generation • Very large scale OS with Graphical User • Smaller in size • IBM PC
1975-1989 Integrated Circuits interface. • Portable • Apple II
called Micro UNIX operating system • Easy to update • Pdp11
processors • Star1000
• Palm tops • dec10
• High capacity hard
disks
• Personal computers
• High speed
computer
networks.
• Optical disks
Generations Technology Software Characteristics Systems

5th Generation • Ultra Large scale • Developed OS with • Easy t transport • IBM Notebooks
1989 onwards Intigrated Circuits high preforming • High performing • SUN Workstations
• Internet GUI. • Smaller in size • Desktop
• High volume • Internet and • Low power • Laptop
storages Multimedia consumption • ultrabook
applications • Slow perfoming
• Artificial • Large in size
Intelligence • Not portable
• Character • Difficult to
recognition transport
• Voice recognition • High power
• Face recognition consumption
• High price
Categorization of Computers
There are 3 basic categorizations

• Categorization according to the size

1. Super computers
2. Mainframe computers
3. Mini computers
4. Personal/Micro computers

• Categorization According to the Technology used

1. Analog Computers
2. Digital Computers
3. Hybrid Computers
 • Categorization according to the purpose used
1. Bespoke Computers
2. General Purpose computers

CATEGORIZATION ACCORDING TO THE SIZE

• Super computer
These are basically designed for scientific purposes like whether
forecasting, experiments, nuclear and artificial intelligence etc. They are
the fastest, largest and most expensive. These contain a number of CPU
which operate in parallel to make it faster
• Main Frame Computers
 Large, expensive computer capable of simultaneously processing
data for hundreds or thousands of users.
 Used to store, manage, and process large amounts of data that
need to be reliable, secure, and centralized.
 Usually housed in a closet sized cabinet.
 (size,speed and price are low compared to super computers)
Applications
payroll computations, accounting, business transactions,
information retrieval, airline seat reservations, and scientific and
engineering computations.
• Mini Computer
A minicomputer is also called as a mid-range computer. Minicomputers are
mainly multi-users systems where more than one user can work simultaneously.
Mini computer examples: IBM's AS/400e, Honeywell200, TI-990. Minicomputer
can support multi-users at a time or you can say that minicomputer is a
multiprocessing system. Speed, size and price is low compared to the computer
types mentioned before
• Micro Computer
A microcomputer is a small, relatively inexpensive computer having a
central processing unit made out of a microprocessor. The computer also
includes memory and input/output circuitry together mounted on a printed
circuit board. Common microcomputers include laptops and desktops.
Beyond standard PCs, microcomputers also include some calculators,
mobile phones, notebooks, workstations and embedded systems. Smaller
than a mainframe or minicomputer, a microcomputer uses a single
integrated semiconductor chip for its central processing unit (CPU).
 Classification of Computers According to the Technology

• Analog computers
These were the earliest computer machines developed and were the among the most complicated
machines for analog computation and process control. Analog data is not discrete, but rather is of a
continuous nature. Examples of such data are pressure, temperature, voltage, speed and weight.
• Digital Computers
It uses electronic technology to generate, process, and store the different types of data. It is
used to run everything from spacecraft to factories, healthcare systems to
telecommunications, banks to household budgets. Since its invention during World
War II, the electronic digital computer has become essential to the economies of the
developed world.
• Hybrid computers
These are mainly used for specialized applications where both analog and digital data
processing is done. For Example, Hybrid computers installed on a petrol pump do not only
measure the amount of petrol but also calculates its value. In this way, It is capable of both
functions.
Categorization of Computers based on their purpose

Specific purpose computers

They are designed to handle a specific problem or to perform
a specific task. A set of instructions is built into the machine
to perform a specific task.

General Purpose computers

These computers are designed to perform a range of tasks
they have the ability to store numerous programs , but they
lack speed and efficiency.
Basic Physical components of a Computer
we have already discussed about basic input and out devices and
hardware in a computer in the 1st lesson. In addition we meet the below
components inside the computer
Hardware
Physical components included in a computer system is
called as hardware. They consists of
• Input
• Output
• Storage
• Networking
• Memory
All these Devices are connected to the computer using the motherboard. Some
devices can receive electricity by the computer (internally) and others can have using
an outsource.
 Manual Input Devices
Device Uses Advantages Disadvantages

The most common People are familiar Incorrect use or

input device with keyboards, so over-use can cause
they don’t need to RSI
You press keys to
be trained
input data into the Many people cannot
computer Skilled typists can type and look at
work very quickly the screen at the
Keyboard The most common same time, so
type of keyboard A lot of different
typing can be time
is the QWERTY keyboards are
consuming
keyboard available, e.g.
ergonomic
They are very
reliable and cheap
 Manual Input Devices
Device Uses Advantages Disadvantages

A graphics tablet User can get much Large models are

consists of a pad more control, very expensive
and a special pen similar to the
Need a large desk
natural way of
It allows artists and area
drawing
Graphics graphic designers
Holding a pen for a
Tablet to draw naturally Advanced models
long time is more
as though they detect subtle
tiring than holding
were drawing changes in
a mouse
on paper pressure, to
enable thicker
The image is
lines to be drawn
instantly converted
to digital data The user can
zoom in to an area
of the drawing for
higher accuracy
 Manual Input Devices
Device Uses Advantages Disadvantages
Most common Combines well Prolonged use can
pointing device with a keyboard lead to RSI
Mouse Used to point and Fast and accurate Need a flat surface
click on icons or to use them
Most people are
menus
skilled at using a For an optical
mouse, so no mouse, the laser
training is needed does not work well
on all surfaces
A tracker ball is User can get great Some people find
Tracker ball basically an upside pointing accuracy, that the thumb
down ball mouse. without moving gets painful with
the hand prolonged use
The user runs
their thumb over Useful where desk Ball can get
the ball to control space is limited greasy and dirty
the on-screen
pointer
 Manual Input Devices
Device Uses Advantages Disadvantages
Originally They give a more Some people find
Joystick designed for realistic gaming them difficult to
pilots to control experience when operate, especially
aeroplanes playing games in 3-d
such as flight environments
Used to control
simulators
wheelchairs and
for playing games Many different
types available

Used to convert Even cheap Pictures can use a

printed images or scanners produce lot of memory
Scanner text into a file of quality images The quality of the
digital data Any printed image final image is
There are two can be inserted dependent on the
types: handheld into a document original image
and flatbed Images can be Issues of copyright
edited before use protection
 Manual Input Devices
Device Uses Advantages Disadvantages
Used for taking You can preview When the drive is
still images which the image before full, images need
Digital can be uploaded pressing the to be uploaded to
to a computer for shutter button a computer or
Camera
permanent deleted
No film needed or
storage
development costs High resolution
camera does not
Unwanted images guarantee good
can be deleted images
A pointing device, Portable - built Takes practice to
Touchpad built into a laptop into the laptop master
or for convenience
Don’t need to Some people find
Fingerpad carry extra them very fiddly
equipment around
Fingers need to be
Small movements clean and free of
needed to move grease
the cursor
 Automatic Input Devices
Device Uses Advantages Disadvantages
Banks print Very quick and Expensive to
important data on accurate produce and print
the bottom of processing of data magnetic ink, and
cheques using – very low error the reader is also
magnetic ink rate. Humans expensive
could not achieve
This ink is then Banks are the
MICR the same accuracy
read by a computer main user – very
Magnetic Very secure as any few other
Ink attempt to change applications
Character the numbers on a
Recognition cheque will be
ignored as the
reader only
recognises
magnetic ink in
the same font
 Automatic Input Devices
Device Uses Advantages Disadvantages
Used when you Very fast method Sometimes
OMR mark the numbers of reading data, incomplete marks
Optical
with a pencil on which reduces are not read
Mark correctly
a lottery ticket queuing time for
Recognition lottery tickets
Also used to mark Only pre-prepared
multiple choice More accurate forms can be
exam papers, and than human scanned into the
paper-based school data entry computer
registers
Uses a scanner to Quicker than Sometimes it is
scan text, then typing in the text not very accurate
OCR software converts
Optical Latest software Documents need
the text into a word
Character can recognise to be proof-read
processor file
Recognition tables and even after scanning
Used to read post handwriting
Only worth doing
codes, as part of
Reduces the cost for large amounts
the sorting process
of posting a letter of text
 Automatic Input Devices
Device Uses Advantages Disadvantages
Used to identify Very quick and All barcodes need
products in shops accurate way to to be programmed
Barcode enter data – suits into the computer
The code is read by
Readers a barcode scanner
busy shops in advance
which identifies the Prices changes are The reader may
product name, made on the not be able to read
manufacturer and database, not the the barcode on
country of origin barcode – more wrinkled packaging
flexible system

Magnetic Found on the back Simple, cheap and Magnetic stripe

Stripe of bank cards and effective can get scratched
Reader store loyalty cards The data on the Not much data
The stripe holds card can be can be stored
information, such altered if needed Thieves can read
as the account data on cards then
‘Chip n’ Pin’ has use the cards
number and the PIN
increased security themselves
 Automatic Input Devices
Device Uses Advantages Disadvantages
Used to input Very cheap piece Computer can
sound into the of equipment misread voice
Microphone computer instructions due to
Helpful for people
natural variations
Used to give the with additional
in people’s voices
computer needs or for busy
commands, or to people who need Generally, the
dictate letters very quick letters sound quality from
directly to a word a PC microphone is
processor poor
Used to input Very cheap piece The image quality
Webcam moving images of equipment from most
into the computer webcams is poor
Enables people to
for use in online The moving
see each other
communication picture tends to
whilst they chat
flicker due to
current limitations
in data transfer
CAT scanner
CAT scanner also known as CT scanner is a medical imaging technology used
in radiology to obtain detailed internal images of a human body.

MRI scanner
Magnetic Resonance Imaging machine uses strong magnetic fields and
Radio waves to obtain detailed images of internal human body.
 Pointing Devices
These devices use the screen resolution and give commands using
pixels on a screen. Graphical user interface is needed to give commands using
these devices.
• Light Pen
This is a computer input device in the scence of a light
sensitive wand and used to point out something on a
screen or draw on a touch screen more accurately
• Digitizer
It is a device that receives analog information,such as sound light ,
and records it digitally.
 Other Input Devices

 Sensor
It is a device that take an analog input from the physical environment and turn
it into a digital signal in order to get an information.
 Logger
loggers are used to automatically monitor and record environmental
parameters over time, allowing conditions to be measured, documented,
analysed and validated.
 Output Devices
▪ An output device is used to display or use
information that comes out of a computer system.

▪ Output devices convert electrical signals from a

computer system into…
✓ Soft Outputs(screen or Multimedia Projector)
✓ Hard Outputs (printer, actuators)
✓ Sound (speakers or headphones)
 Soft Output Devices

Device Uses Advantages Disadvantages

Thin Film Transistor Take up very little Easy to damage
TFT monitors are more space
Colour contrast on
Monitor commonly known
Run very quietly cheaper models is
as flat screens or
and produce little not as good as
LCD screens
heat CRT monitors
Use about a third You may get ‘dead’
of the energy of pixels
a CRT monitor

Cathode Ray Tube Robust and Large, bulky and

CRT is very old difficult to damage unsightly
Monitor technology.
Reliable Can be heavy
Almost completely
replaced by flat Last for a very Produce a lot of
screen monitors long time heat
Old technology
 Soft Output Devices

Device Uses Advantages Disadvantages

Light emmiting Take up very little Easy to damage
LED diodes are used in space
Colour contrast on
Monitor this monitors and
Run very quietly cheaper models is
are more
and produce little not as good as
commonly known
heat CRT monitors
as LED screens
Use about a third
of the energy of
a CRT monitor
 Hard Outputs
• Printers
What is a printer?
 An external hardware device responsible for taking computer data and
generating a hard copy of that data. Printers are one of the most commonly
used peripherals and they print text and still images on the paper.

64
There are 2 main types of printer…

1. Impact prnters
2. Non Impact Printers

• Impact prnters(uses an impaction on a surface to print)

I. Line printers
II. Dot Matrix Printers

• Non Impact Printers(No impactions used to print)

I. Inkjet printers
II. Bubble Jet printers
III. Lazer printers
IV. Thermal printers
Impact Printers
• Dot Matrix Printer
 The term dot matrix refers to
the process of placing dots to
form an image.
 Its speed is usually 30 to 550
characters per second (cps).
 This is the cheapest and the
most noisy printer and has a
low print quality. Dot Matrix
were 1st introduced by
Centronics in 1970.

66
 How Dot-Matrix works?
 The dot matrix forms images one character at a time as the
print head moves across the paper.
 Uses tiny pins to hit an ink ribbon and the paper much as a
typewriter does.
 This printer arranges dots to form characters and all kinds
of images.
 9 to 24 vertical column pins are contained in a rectangular
print head. When print head moves across the paper, pins
are activated to form a dotted character image. These
printers can produce carbon copies along with the originals.

67
 “Advantages/Dis-advatages of Dot-Matrix”

Advantages:
 (1) In-expensive.
 (2) Low per page cost.
 (3) Energy efficient.

Dis-advantages:
 (1) Noisy
 (2) Low resolution
 (3) Limited fonts flexibility
 (4) Poor quality graphics output.
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 Daisy Wheel Printer
 A daisy wheel printer is basically an
impact printer consisting of a wheel
and attached extensions on which
molded metal characters are mounted.
A daisy wheel printer produces letter
quality print and it can’t produce
graphics output.

69
 How Daisy wheel printer works?

 In a daisy wheel printer, a hammer presses the wheel against a ribbon

which in turn makes an ink stain on the paper in the form of a character
mounted on the wheel extensions.
 These printers are very noisy as there occur great movement during the
printing. Its printing speed is also very slow ,i.e. less than 90cps.

70
Non Impact printers…
Device Uses Advantages Disadvantages
Inkjet General purpose Cheap to buy Ink cartridges can be
use for family or very expensive
Latest models
home office
can be very fast Print quality not
always very good

Laser Business use for Quality printing More expensive to

letters, Good for large buy than inkjets
stationery and areas of colour Toner cartridges
images
Quiet & Quick are expensive

Business use Can make a Noisy and rather old-

Dot Matrix
for duplicate carbon copy fashioned technology
documents Can print on Poor quality and only
continuous prints in black ink
rolls of paper
 Ink-Jet Printer

 It is a non-impact printer producing a high

quality print. A standard Inkjet printer has
a resolution of 300dpi. Newer models have
further improved dpi. Inkjet printers were
introduced in the later half of 1980s and
are very popular owing to their extra-
ordinary performance.

72
 How Inkjet Printer works?

 (1) Print head having four ink cartridges

moves .
 (2) Software instructs where to apply dots of
ink, which color and what quantity to use.
 (3) Electrical pulses are sent to the resistors
behind each nozzle.
 (4) Vapor bubbles of ink are formed by
resistors and the ink is forced to the paper
through nozzles. Color cartridge showing inkjet nozzles .
 (5) A matrix of dots forms characters and
pictures.
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 Advantages/ Dis-advantages

 Advantages:
 (1) High resolution output.
 (2) Energy efficient.
 (3) Many options to select.
 Dis-advantages:
 (1) Expensive.
 (2) Special paper required for higher resolution output.
 (3) Time consuming in case of graphics printing.

74
 Thermal Printer
 Thermal printers are in-
expensive printers mostly used
in fax machines. The Thermal
printers are further classified
into two types.
 (1) Electro thermal printers:
 (2) Thermal Wax printers:

A fax machine using a thermal printer

75
 How thermal printer works?

 Thermal printers use heated pins and ribbons with different color bands.
These printers contain a stick of wax like ink. The ribbon passes in front
of a print head that has a series of tiny heated pins. The pins cause the
wax to melt and adhere to the paper and when temperature reaches to a
certain level, it is hardened.

76
 “Laser Printer”
 Laser printers use very
advanced technology and
produce a high quality output.
Laser printers can also
produce high quality graphics
images.
 Resolution is 600 to 1200dpi.

77
 How Laser printer Works?

(1) Paper is fed and the drum rotates.

(2) A laser beam conveys information from the computer to a rotating
mirror and thus an image is created on the drum.
(3)The charges on the drum are ionized and the toner sticks to the drum.
(4)Toner is transferred from drum to paper.
(5)Heat is applied to fuse the toner on the paper.

78
 “Plotter”
 A large scale printer which is
very accurate in producing
engineering drawings and
architectural blueprints.
 Ex: Banners, Posters, Maps

79
 Speakers and Headphones
 Speakers  Headphones
Speakers convert electromagnetic A pair of small speakers connected to
waves into sound waves. They receive listen to sound from a computer, music
inputs from a connected device or a player or other such electronic device.
computer which can be in the form of
analog or digital. speakers connected to
computers are guided by the sound card
of the computer
 Multimedia Projector
 It can copy the computer screen using rays of light using a system of lenses
and project on a screen
 Storage Devices
storage devices are divided into 2 categories

 Primary Storage Devices  Secondary Storage Devices

Data accessed frequently by computer Data stored permanently on these
applications while on operation. devices and they exist without any
o ROM power. They are categorized into 3
o RAM parts.
o Cache o Magnetic storage devices
o Registers o Optical Storage devices
o Solid state storage devices
 Magnetic storage Devices
Uses magnetic technology to store data
Ex: Magnetic tape, Hard Disc, Floppy disk

Optical storage Devices

Uses optical technology to store data
Ex: CD, DVD, BluRay

Solid State storage Devices

Uses solid state technology to store data
Ex: Flash drives, memory chip
 Control and Processing Devices

The control and processing of the computer is done

by the central processing unit. Clock speed is
measured in Gigahertz and word size is measured in
bits. A word size here is the amount of blocks that can
be addressed to the CPU at one time for processing.
 There are three main parts of a central processing unit.

Arithmetic and logical unit

It solves all arithmetic and logical problems on the computer. In addition, all calculations and comparisons are done
with this
When processing any multimedia format, it is done digitally by ALU
 control unit
It issues control signals to control all parts of the computer and decodes
instructions in memory

Register Array
It stores frequently accessed data temporarily and CPU can use them for
processing.

Communication devices
A computer or device used to exchange data with another computer or
device is called this device
 Computer software
A program consisting of a set of instructions written to perform a specific task
is called software. According to their nature, software can be divided into two
parts as
1. system software
2. application software

Classification of software
1. System Software and Application Software
2. Proprietary Software and Open Source Software
3. Bespoke Software and Common Software
System software
This includes software installed to fulfill the needs of the computer
system and build the relationship between the system and the user

Operating systems
This is the main software of a computer as its main function. Directs
and controls all parts of the computer system and acts as an interface
between the hardware and the user and manages the computer
system.
Language translator
Interpreters and compilers are used to translate a program written in a high-level
computer language into machine language
Utility software
This includes software that is used to make the functions of the operating system
more efficient
Application software
The software that needs to be run in the computer to fulfill the needs of the
user is called application software
 Firmware

This includes software that is primarily required for the launch of a

computer This software is often built into the hardware at the time
of manufacture and is difficult to change later. It is also used for the
operation of automated electronic devices other than computers
 Copyrighted software
Software that a party has legal rights to belongs to this category. To copy
such software, there must be an agreement with the owner. Microsoft,
Macromedia, Adobe, etc. can be named as a few organizations that have
introduced copyrighted software.

software
Software that does not claim any legal rights belongs to this
category. Copying or using such software does not require legal
permission. It is also known as free software. Along with this type of
software, its source code can also be obtained.
 • Liveware
Users who use a computer system can be called liveware. Users
can be classified into two categories as system users and end
users
The need for human operators in computer systems
Computer systems can be divided into fully automatic and
semi-automatic. Fully automatic computer systems do not
require humans to operate but semi-automatic computer
systems require human labor to operate.
Components in Mother Board
• Faster data transfer
• Maintain data transfer between
processor, cache memory and main
memory

• Slow data transfer

• Used in Modem and Sound cards
• Faster data transfer
• 32bit and used by Network
card,Video card and SCSI
Adapter
This is used for connecting CD Rom Drive or Zip Drive to the motherboard.
This is working as an interface. Speed is less than modern interfaces and
only can be seen on old motherboards.

This is used for modern motherboards. Speed is higher than IDE

This is used for multi device connections. Can be connected to 7-15 devices
Gives the relevant electricity needed for the computer. It converts the 240V
indirect current from the ups to direct current. It consists of a internal
cooling system with a fan.
BUS
A pc bus is the path on the motherboard to transfer data to and
from the CPU and other PC components. There are 3 basic buses
used
• Data bus – used for transporting data through motherboard
• Control bus – used to transmit control signals for devices
• Address Bus – used to find or represent addresses of locations
of memory in the computer
Chipset
The component which connects data taken from buss to devices is called
chipset. There are 2 types of chipsets
• North Bridge – communicates with the processor and interact with
system memory, PCI bus,level2cach and all AGP activities
• South Bridge – it is responsible for pc hard drive controller, I/O
controller and integrated hardware like sound card, video card, USB,
PCI, ISA, BIOS and Ethernet
Compatibility of the CPU and Motherboard

• Wattage
• Connection point of processor and the mother board
• Compatibility of bios
• chipset
Ports
The interfaces which connect the computer and devices or other computers
together
It allows to get power from the wall Outlet to the computer
Input Devices and Interfaces
• PS2 Ports
There are two types of PS2 ports located in the pc. Purple color one is for
connecting Key board and Green color one is for mouse. These are rarely
used today.
 It consists of 9 or 25 pins and used to connect
devices such as old mouse and modems.
commonly used with old computers

Parallel Ports
It consists of 25 holes to be connected and used
in connecting printers, scanners or devices need
to be connected parallel to the computer. It is
also called DB25
Network Ports
These ports are used for connecting a computer to
another network. The related connector for this port is
called RJ45 Connector. This port is located in the
NIC(Network Interface Card)

Modem port
This is used to connect a pc to the
internet or to connect a Fax machine or
cable modem
USB Ports
A USB port is a standard cable connection interface
for personal computers and consumer electronics
devices. USB stands for Universal Serial Bus, an
industry standard for short-distance digital data
communications. USB ports allow USB devices to be
connected to each other with and transfer digital
data over USB cables
Characteristics of USB
• fast transmission speed
• convenient use
• hot plug support
• flexible connection
• independent power supply
• Plug and Play option
Output interfaces in a computer

Monitor port/VGA Port

Is used in connecting PC monitor to the CPU.
It is located in the Back side of the computer
casing and can be also used to connect Multi
Media Projector. There are 15 holes in the
port

Sound Port
It has 3inputs or slots basically. One for
microphone, speakers and external sound
devices.
• FireWire Card
A FireWire card is an add-in card that allows a FireWire device or peripheral to be
connected to a computer.
• Camcorder
• External Hard Disk
• External DVD Drive
 HDMI port - High-Definition Multimedia Interface is a
proprietary audio/video interface for transmitting
uncompressed video data and compressed or
uncompressed digital audio data from an HDMI-compliant
source .

• Parallel computing
Refers to the process of breaking down larger problems into smaller, independent,
often similar parts that can be executed simultaneously by multiple processors
communicating via shared memory, the results of which are combined upon
completion as part of an overall algorithm.
• Grid computing
is the use of widely distributed computer resources to reach a common
goal. A computing grid can be thought of as a distributed system with non-
interactive workloads that involve many files.
Von Neumann Architecture
A mathematician John Von Neumann in 1945 introduced the Von Neumann
Architecture fro computers. The basic idea of this concept was to express how a
program in a computer can process several processes without changing the physical
components of a computer. This is also the same concept used in modern day
computers. And with this the stored program concept was introduced to the world by
John Von Neummann
Von Neumann Architecture with secondary memory
 Basic Components in Von Neumann Architecture.
• Input/output
• Control Unit
• ALU – Arithmetic and Logic Unit
• Main Memory / Primary Memory
• Secondary Storage / Auxiliary Storage

When an input is given using a keyboard or mouse, it is initially sent to the main
memory of the computer. Then that data is sent to the CPU fro processing. The
processing is done by the ALU and CU inside the CPU and then the processed data is
sent back to the main memory. The processed data in the main memory is then sent to
a secondary storage or output by the monitor, printer or any other output device
connected to the computer.
Basic Components
• Input and output Units
We have already studied what are the input and output devices of a computer
Central Processing Unit – CPU
This is the basic part of a computer. It is named as the brain of the computer.
Beginning of the CPU was 4004 intel micro processor and day by day it has further
developed. Operating system and the applications are run by this CPU and it consists
of 3 components

1. Arithmetic and Logic Unit – (ALU)

2. Control Unit – (CU)
3. Memory Registers
ALU
All mathematical operations, comparisons and analyzing is done by this ALU. In
addition logical calculations involve AND,OR, NOT gates are also done.

Control Unit
Controls every component physically connected to the computer. There are few
basic functionalities of CU
• Maintain continuity of a program until conclusion instructions are given
• Fetching next instruction to execute
• Executing the next instruction to be executed
• Decoding instruction
• Generate clock pulses
• Defining operations
These are used to store processed data from arithmetic and logic unit and to
store frequently used data by the processor. There are 3 basic registers
Instruction Register
stores the currently processing instruction .

Program Counter
Stores the address of the next instruction and counts the number of instructions
executed.

Stores processed data from Arithmetic and Logic unit.

In addition to those registers….

Flags Register
Denotes the current status of the CPU

General Purpose Registers

Stores data needed for general tasks by different kind of tasks
Clock speed
The clock speed measures the number of cycles your CPU executes per second, measured in GHz
(gigahertz). A “cycle” is technically a pulse synchronized by an internal oscillator, but for our purposes, they're a
basic unit that helps understand a CPU's speed
Multi Core Processor
It is an integrated circuit that has two or
more processor cores attached for
enhanced performance and reduced
power consumption. These processors
also enable more efficient simultaneous
processing of multiple tasks, such as with
parallel processing and multi threading.
Memory
• There are number of cells in a memory with pre defined capacity and each has its
address.
• Memory cell size can be 8,16,32,64 in bits.
• Users or programs can write or read data in memory

Memory Reading and Writing

There are two specific registers allocated for this
• MAR – Memory Address Registers
• MDR – Memory Data Registers
Memory Reading
Memory Writing
After inserting the memory
Memory Hierarchy
According to the von Neumann architecture a computer is dependent of the memory
it has. Memory of the computers are manufactured using electric circuits. There are
different kind of memory which are used in different occasions in the process of
computer. Memory store data when the computer is on or shut down.
Volatile Memory
Volatile memory is a type of storage whose contents are erased when the system's
power is turned off or interrupted. We have several types of volatile memory

• SRAM – Static Random Access Memory

SRAM (static RAM) is a type of random access memory (RAM) that
retains data bits in its memory as long as power is being supplied. They
are manufactured using semi conductors. That is using flip flops.
Unlike dynamic RAM (DRAM), which must be continuously refreshed, SRAM
does not have this requirement, resulting in better performance and lower
power usage. Therefore the reliability is high. Cache memory and memory
registers are made by these sram. Price is rather high than DRAM.
• DRAM – Dynamic Random Access Memory
Dynamic random-access memory is a type of random-access semiconductor
memory that stores each bit of data in a memory cell, usually consisting of a tiny
capacitor and a transistor, both typically based on metal-oxide-semiconductor
technology. Capacity is higher than SRAM but the efficiency is lower as well as
the price. Needs frequent refreshments and it may consume some time from the
cpu. Main memory of the PC are made using this DRAM.
SDRAM
SDRAM (synchronous DRAM) is a generic name for various kinds
of dynamic random access memory (DRAM) that are synchronized with
the clock speed that the microprocessor is optimized for. Therefore the
efficiency the SDRAM depends on the clock speed of the computer. These
are frequently used in computers today and new versions
DDR,DDR2,DDR3,DDR4 are introduced to the world.
Registers – Manufactured using SD RAM and this is the most efficient memory
device in PC. It is low in capacity and high in price

Cache Memory
Also used SRAM technology to manufacture and therefore it is also faster in accessing
but has less volume compared to main memory. There Are 3 types of cache memory,
• L1
• L2
• L3
L1 – Level 1 cache memory
A level 1 cache (L1 cache) is a memory cache that is directly built into the
microprocessor, which is used for storing the microprocessor's recently accessed
information, thus it is also called the primary cache. It is also referred to as the internal
cache or system cache
L2 – Level 2 cache memory
A level 2 cache (L2 cache) is a CPU cache memory that is located outside and separate
from the microprocessor chip core, or it is found on the same processor chip package.
L3- Level 3 cache memory
(Level 3 cache) A memory bank built onto the motherboard. The L3 cache feeds the L2
cache, and its memory is typically slower than the L2 memory, but faster than main
memory. The L3 cache feeds the L2 cache, which feeds the L1 cache, which feeds the
processor.
RAM – Random Access Memory
DRAM/SDRAM is used to manufacture a ram of a pc we use today. We also call this the
primary memory of a computer. It has dedicated slots in the mother board and can be
extended after if needed. Basically they come with 4Gb,8Gb,16Gb memory sizes.
Efficiency is lower than cache memory and memory registers.

Memory Controller
The memory controller is a digital circuit that manages the flow of data going
to and from the computer's main memory. It is located in the mother board
as a micro circuit.
Non-volatile memory
Non-volatile memory (NVM) or non-volatile storage is a type of computer
memory that can retain stored information even after power is removed.
These are manufactured using electronic circuits, magnetic media or optical
media
ROM – Read Only Memory

• PROM – Programmable Read Only Memory

For only writing data once after manufacturing. We cannot delete or change
data after writing
• EPROM – Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
Data on these devices can only be erased by using Ultra Violet rays and data
can be permanently entered again
• EEPROM – Electronically Erasable Read Only Memory
Data on these devices can be erased using an electronic method and
rewritten permanently.
Secondary Storage
Magnetic storage media – Hard disks, Floppy disks, Magnetic tapes
Solid state media – Flash Drive, Memory cards
Optical storage media – CD, DVD, Blu-ray
Path of memory devices from CPU

Micro Processor→Registers→L1 cache→L2 Cache→L3cache→RAM→Hard

Disk→ CD/DVD /Tape drive
 Memory Access Methods
Sequential Access
An order is followed when entering data or records in memory cells. Starts from
the 1st and accessed one after another
Random access
Records are randomly or directly accessed and no order followed. Might
be the most efficient compared to sequential access
THE END