Sampling is the process of selecting a subset of individuals or items from a

larger population to represent the whole. The goal is to draw conclusions

(inferences) about the population based on the characteristics of the sample.

According to Creswell (2012), sampling is essential because researchers

rarely have the time, money, or resources to study entire populations. Instead,
they focus on a carefully chosen sample that reflects the broader group.

Definition (Cochran, 1977):

“Sampling is the process of selecting some part of a population
to observe so that one may estimate something about the whole
population.”

Why Is Sampling Important in Research?

1. Efficiency and Cost-Effectiveness

Sampling enables a quicker, more cost-effective method of collecting

data than if it were based on studies of an entire population.

For example, conducting a nationwide health survey would be

expensive and time-consuming if every citizen had to be contacted. A
sample allows data collection from a manageable group.

2. Feasibility and Practicality

In most cases, size or geographic distribution excludes the possibility

of studying every individual in a population. Sampling makes research
feasible. Some populations are too large (e.g., all students in the
Philippines) or inaccessible (e.g., marine life in the Pacific Ocean).

Sampling makes research feasible even under such constraints.

3. Accuracy and Reliability

A good sample design may give very accurate parameter estimates of

the population. The application of appropriate sampling methods will
help minimize bias and error. Properly selected random samples
reduce bias and provide results close to what would be obtained by
studying the whole population.

Statistical theory supports that with random sampling, the sample

mean tends to converge toward the population mean (Law of Large
Numbers).

4. Basis for Inference

Sampling enables researchers to generalize results to the population

using inferential statistics.
 Using techniques like confidence intervals and hypothesis testing,
researchers can measure how reliable their conclusions are.

5. Ethical and Logistical Considerations

In medical research, it may be unethical or dangerous to test new

drugs on an entire population. Controlled samples provide safer ways
to test and monitor results.

Sampling Methods | Types, Techniques & Examples

Published on September 19, 2019 by Shona McCombes. Revised on
June 22, 2023. ([Link]
methods/)

When you conduct research about a group of people, it’s rarely possible to
collect data from every person in that group. Instead, you select a sample.
The sample is the group of individuals who will actually participate in the
research.

To draw valid conclusions from your results, you have to carefully decide how
you will select a sample that is representative of the group as a whole. This is
called a sampling method. There are two primary types of sampling methods
that you can use in your research:

 Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make

strong statistical inferences about the whole group.
 Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on
convenience or other criteria, allowing you to easily collect data.

You should clearly explain how you selected your sample in

the methodology section of your paper or thesis, as well as how you
approached minimizing research bias in your work.

Population vs. sample

First, you need to understand the difference between a population and a
sample, and identify the target population of your research.

 The population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions
about.
 The sample is the specific group of individuals that you will collect data
from.

The population can be defined in terms of geographical location, age, income,

or many other characteristics.
It can be very broad or quite narrow: maybe you want to make inferences
about the whole adult population of your country; maybe your research
focuses on customers of a certain company, patients with a specific health
condition, or students in a single school.

It is important to carefully define your target population according to the

purpose and practicalities of your project.

If the population is very large, demographically mixed, and geographically

dispersed, it might be difficult to gain access to a representative sample. A
lack of a representative sample affects the validity of your results, and can
lead to several research biases, particularly sampling bias.

Sampling frame
The sampling frame is the actual list of individuals that the sample will be
drawn from. Ideally, it should include the entire target population (and nobody
who is not part of that population).

Example: Sampling frame. You are doing research on working conditions at a

social media marketing company. Your population is all 1000 employees of
the company. Your sampling frame is the company’s HR database, which lists
the names and contact details of every employee.

Sample size
The number of individuals you should include in your sample depends on
various factors, including the size and variability of the population and your
research design. There are different sample size calculators and formulas
depending on what you want to achieve with statistical analysis.

Probability sampling methods

Probability sampling means that every member of the population has a
chance of being selected. It is mainly used in quantitative research. If you
want to produce results that are representative of the whole population,
probability sampling techniques are the most valid choice.
There are four main types of probability sample.

1. Simple random sampling

In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal
chance of being selected. Your sampling frame should include the whole
population.

To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number
generators or other techniques that are based entirely on chance.

Example: You want to select a simple random sample of 1000 employees of a

social media marketing company. You assign a number to every employee in
the company database from 1 to 1000, and use a random number generator
to select 100 numbers.

2. Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually
slightly easier to conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a
number, but instead of randomly generating numbers, individuals are chosen
at regular intervals.
Example: All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order. From
the first 10 numbers, you randomly select a starting point: number 6. From
number 6 onwards, every 10th person on the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36,
and so on), and you end up with a sample of 100 people.

If you use this technique, it is important to make sure that there is no hidden
pattern in the list that might skew the sample.

For example, if the HR database groups employees by team, and team

members are listed in order of seniority, there is a risk that your interval might
skip over people in junior roles, resulting in a sample that is skewed towards
senior employees.

3. Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that
may differ in important ways. It allows you draw more precise conclusions by
ensuring that every subgroup is properly represented in the sample.

To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups (called
strata) based on the relevant characteristic (e.g., gender identity, age range,
income bracket, job role).

Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many
people should be sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random
or systematic sampling to select a sample from each subgroup.

Example: Stratified samplingThe company has 800 female employees and

200 male employees. You want to ensure that the sample reflects the gender
balance of the company, so you sort the population into two strata based on
gender. Then you use random sampling on each group, selecting 80 women
and 20 men, which gives you a representative sample of 100 people.

4. Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but
each subgroup should have similar characteristics to the whole sample.
Instead of sampling individuals from each subgroup, you randomly select
entire subgroups.

If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each

sampled cluster. If the clusters themselves are large, you can also sample
individuals from within each cluster using one of the techniques above. This is
called multistage sampling.

This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but
there is more risk of error in the sample, as there could be substantial
differences between clusters. It’s difficult to guarantee that the sampled
clusters are really representative of the whole population.
Example: Cluster samplingThe company has offices in 10 cities across the
country (all with roughly the same number of employees in similar roles). You
don’t have the capacity to travel to every office to collect your data, so you
use random sampling to select 3 offices – these are your clusters.

Non-probability sampling methods

In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-random
criteria, and not every individual has a chance of being included.

This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk
of sampling bias. That means the inferences you can make about the
population are weaker than with probability samples, and your conclusions
may be more limited. If you use a non-probability sample, you should still aim
to make it as representative of the population as possible.

Non-probability sampling techniques are often used

in exploratory and qualitative research. In these types of research, the aim is
not to test a hypothesis about a broad population, but to develop an initial
understanding of a small or under-researched population.
1. Convenience sampling
A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most
accessible to the researcher.

This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way
to tell if the sample is representative of the population, so it can’t
produce generalizable results. Convenience samples are at risk for
both sampling bias and selection bias.

Example: You are researching about student support services in your

university, so after each of your classes, you ask your fellow students to
complete a survey on the topic. This is a convenient way to gather data, but
as you only surveyed students taking the same classes as you at the same
level, the sample is not representative of all the students at your university.

2. Voluntary response sampling

Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly
based on ease of access. Instead of the researcher choosing participants and
directly contacting them, people volunteer themselves (e.g. by responding to a
public online survey).

Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as some

people will inherently be more likely to volunteer than others, leading to self-
selection bias.

Example: You send out the survey to all students at your university and a lot
of students decide to complete it. This can certainly give you some insight into
the topic, but the people who responded are more likely to be those who have
strong opinions about the student support services, so you can’t be sure that
their opinions are representative of all students.

3. Purposive sampling
This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the
researcher using their expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the
purposes of the research.

It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain

detailed knowledge about a specific phenomenon rather than make statistical
inferences, or where the population is very small and specific. An effective
purposive sample must have clear criteria and rationale for inclusion. Always
make sure to describe your inclusion and exclusion criteria and beware
of observer bias affecting your arguments.

Example: You want to know more about the experiences of disabled students
at your university, so you purposefully select a number of students with
different support needs in order to gather a varied range of data on their
experiences with student services.
4. Snowball sampling
If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit
participants via other participants. The number of people you have access to
“snowballs” as you get in contact with more people. The downside here is also
representativeness, as you have no way of knowing how representative your
sample is due to the reliance on participants recruiting others. This can lead
to sampling bias.

Example: You are researching experiences of homelessness in your city.

Since there is no list of all homeless people in the city, probability sampling
isn’t possible. You meet one person who agrees to participate in the research,
and she puts you in contact with other homeless people that she knows in the
area.

5. Quota sampling
Quota sampling relies on the non-random selection of a predetermined
number or proportion of units. This is called a quota.

You first divide the population into mutually exclusive subgroups (called
strata) and then recruit sample units until you reach your quota. These units
share specific characteristics, determined by you prior to forming your strata.
The aim of quota sampling is to control what or who makes up your sample.

Example: You want to gauge consumer interest in a new produce delivery

service in Tubigon, focused on dietary preferences. You divide the population
into meat eaters, vegetarians, and vegans, drawing a sample of 1000 people.
Since the company wants to cater to all consumers, you set a quota of 200
people for each dietary group. In this way, all dietary preferences are equally
represented in your research, and you can easily compare these [Link]
continue recruiting until you reach the quota of 200 participants for each
subgroup.