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Glass Ceiling Factors, Job Satisfaction and Job Switching Decisions of Female
Employees in Private Sector Enterprises of Bangladesh. The Business Review,
5, 79-97, ISSN: 1996-3637.

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BuSinGSSBeuieur
Glass ceiling Factors, Job satisfaction and Job switching Decisions
of
Female Employees in Private Sector Enterprises of Bangladesh
Abdul Kader Nazmut
Associate Professor, Departrnent ofManagemetrt atrd HRM
Faculty of Business Administr;rion
Amencan [nlematiojal University Bangladesh. Dhaka. Bangladesh
Email: dipu 123 @gnail. com
Nazrul Islam Md. Mahmudul Alam
Professor and Dean, School of Business Senior Lecturer, School ofEconomics, Finance & Banking
Uttara Univenity, Dhaka, Bangladesh College ofBusiness, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Kedah, Malaysia
Email: nazrull'[email protected] E-mail: [email protected]

Abslract- The Glass ceiling b an important barrier in the

Article History
developing y,orld like Banglodesh. But there are
few Received : 29 December 2016
studies on the privqte sector businesses of Bangladesh in
this regard. Hence, this study aims ti detel-ine the Revised : 16 May 2017
inlluence of gloss eilingfauors on the job satisloction and Accepted : 17 May 20!7
job switching decisions offemale empioyees ii the private
s_ector business o/ Bangladesh. This study was coiducred
by using a structured questionnaire on li| Kelwonls
female enploy_
ees trom t' ,o priyate sector industries such os, banking Female employees, Job
and
telecommanicarion sectors of Bangladesh. The data"were satisfaction Glass ceiling,
collelte! b1, ustlg randon sampling techniques. The snrdy
Gender discrimination, Job
used Ordered Logit ond Binary Logit Regression switching.
techniques. This study found that female imployeZs work-
ing in banking sector hold norejob satisfaciion than rhose
ofthe telecomnunication s?ctor. This srudy alsofound rhat IEL Classification
glass ceiling related variables has no significait relation- 128;164
ship with thejob satisfaction offemale eipioyees, but there
aye
llveral glass ceiling factors that hqve statistically
signiftcant influences on their decisions about changing ie
eristi gjobs ofyomenemployees. The glas; ceilinifa;turs
are concerned with the discriminations: bv aiv male
colleague. to move to higher matwgement position,
promotion, and injob securi4t, and switching to better j;bs.
/or
Some glass ceiling also shoi a statistically
^otherrelationship factors
slqnrlcant with not willing to change jobi.
These are: the m.rried women or the women who tike-to be
isolated_ in the worlqlace, or those who haw a good
network qnd understanding within the organizarioi. In
order to improve the situation, seyeral initiatives need to be
taken in lhe organization like awqreness building, standard
qnd ethical human resource practices, strict policies
discriuinatory attitudes and behqvior, etc.
for

Article Citation I Nazmul, A. K., Islam, N., & Alam,

M. M. (2016). Glass Ceiling Factors, Job Satisfaction,
and Job Switching Decisions ofFemale Employees in
Private Sector Enterprises ofBangladesh. The Busi-
ness Reyiew,5, 79-97, ISSN : 1996-363j

79
 The Business Review Vol. 5, 2016

- t Intnooucuon
Glass Ceiling means invisible baniers that impede the career advancement of
women employees. It refers to situations where the advancement of qualified
women within the hierarchy of an organization is halted at a particular level because
ofdiscrimination, most commonly sexism or racism. This situation is refened to as
a "ceiling" as there is a limitation, blocking upward advalcement, and "glass"
(transparent) because the limitation is not immediately apparent and is normally an
unwritten and unofficial policy which is invisible in nature (Afza & Newaz, 2008)'

Several studies show that the disparity between male and female participation
in
public and private sector business is wicle in most of the third world countries'
Women have little or unequal access to emplolment. An insignifrcant number of
women occupy key decision making positions (United Nations, 1989)' Women are
unable to exert power over economic strucflrle in their societies They are virtually
poorly representerl in economic decision making (Platform for Action, n d') Social
and economic policies wholly or partially directed towards women remain inad-
equate in resoiving problems as they often reflect male perceptions, thereby,
contributing to inequalities between the male and female employees (Afza &
Newaz, 2008). In the workplaces ofBanglaclesh, women are discriminated based on
stereotypical perceptions. It is generally argued that in the developing world, like
Bangladesh, where almost half the population is women, the need for involving
women in the development process can make them more empowered and hence
increase the chances for development (Afza & Newaz, 2008).

Recent research suggests that improved education and training facilities for
women can open up more opporfunities for women as far as getting access in the
process ofdevelopment. According to Afza and Newaz (2008), in Bangladesh, the
itereotypical perception reiults in differing attitude in both genders regarding
women's participation in di{ferent sectors ofthe economy ln the society, women
are portrayed as weak, unassuming, passive, feminine, submissive, and dependent'
In tle workplaces, it is observed that the discriminatory practices against female
employees that include attitudes of employers suggesting women are not capable
enough physically mentally and emotionally. Studies show that women become
temperamental very easily and do not possess enough motivation to do theirjobs
weli and hence the common beliefis that women perform well in haditionalroles
that include teaching in primary schools, working in the NGOs' social, health and
welfare organizations instead of working in administrative and management
positions. The stereotype about female employees is that they are committed and
efficient only for a short period of time and are generally not reliable'

80
 Nazmul, et al. : Glass Ceiling Factors, Job Sali{aclior, and Job Switching of Fenale Enployees

Women are believed to have health concems and are easily wlnerable to sickness
and therefore frequently remain absent from work. In addition, it is believed that
pregnancies intenupt women's regular work and their careers are disrupted by
family obligations (Zafarullah, 2000). According to Hossain (2007), there is a com-
ponent of knowledge in the literature about women's career within organizations
that suggests that it is the organization itself that plays a key role in the advance-
ment of women in the organizational hierarchy (e.g. Liff & Ward, 2001; Benschop
& Dooreward, 1998). Hence, this study attempts to determine the extent to which
female employees ofBangladesh face glass ceiling barriers, its type aad that factors
that create this banier.

1.1 Glass Ceiling Experiences

The term 'Glass Ceiling' has fust been identified by Carol Hymowitz and
Timothy Schellhardt in an article, published on March 24th edition of the "Wall
Street Joumal" in 1986. The article revealed the invisible barriers that impede the
career advancement of women in the American workforce. The term glass ceiling
was coined prior to 1984 by two women at Hewlett-Packard in 1979, Katherine
Lawrence aad Marianne Sclreiber described that there seemed to be a clear path
of promotion, but in actuality women seemed to hit a point where they seemed
unable to progress beyond. However, Gay Bryant used the term prior to that, in
one ofhis articles published in Adweek in March 1984. According to Davidson
and Burke (2000), the concept of glass ceiling refers to an invisible, but imper-
meable banier that limits the career advancement of female employees.

A glass ceiling is a specific tlpe ofgender inequality that can be distinguished

fiom other types of inequality (Cotter, Hermsen, Ovadia & Vanneman, 200 1 ). In
their study, they have identified four criteria that create glass ceiling. The first
criterion is that a glass ceiling inequality represents a gender difference that is not
explained by other job-relevant characteristics of the employees. The second
criterion is that a glass ceiling inequality represents a gender difference that is
greater at higher levels ofan outcome than at lower levels ofan outcome. Third
ffiterion is that a glass ceiling inequality represents a gender or racial inequality
in the chances of advancement into higher levels, not merely the proportions of
each gender or race cunently at those higher levels. And the last criterion is that
a glass ceiling inequality represents inequality that increases over the course ofa
career ofa woman employee.

81
 The Busi ess Review VoL 5, 2016

In the same research, they found evidence of a glass ceiling for women, but
racial inequalities among men do not follow a similar pattem. Glass ceiling
appeared to be a distinctively gender phenomenon. The concept of glass ceiling
is an oft-used metaphor for the relative disadvantages regarding women's career
opportunities, alluding to the growing difficulties for women when moving up to
the career ladder (e.g. Cotter et a1.,2001; Charles & Grusky, 1995). It creates a
situation where there is a definite stop for women at a certain level in the hierar-
chy of the organization (Baxter & Wright, 2000; Britton & Williams, 2000)'

A number of research in different countries has further examined the role of

marital and childbearing responsibilities as aids or hindrances to progress
women's professional career (Bellas, 1992; Cole & Zuckerman,1987; Astin &
Davis, 1985, Hossain, 2007). While men are usually occupied for their continu-
ing professional career development and achievement of higher positions and
promotions, women are assumed a degree of detachment from a profession and a
postponement of promotion in favor of childcare ard other family responsibili-
ties (Hossain, 2007). These continuing differences pose career difficulties and
dilemmas for female employees in different industries (Evetts, 1996).

Present research studies in the developed countries further reveal that female
employees achieve progression in their career ladders ascribe it to the efforts of
their organizations (Hossain, 2007). These employees state that their organiza-
tions identify and develop high-potential employees, provide high visibility
assignments, social support, and mentoring programs for female employees
(Burke & Nelson, 2002). Similarly, in some developing countries like Bangla-
desh, India, the govemment has been taking initiatives to promote female partici-
pation in employment, by providing special provision such as quota protection
for women (Hossain, 2007). This is working as a positive incentive for female
graduates to embrace a career in the governmentjob. Howevet, some reseatchers
argue that the quota system is linked to the concept of reverse discrimination.
Under this system, an employer would be required by law to employ a certain
proportion ftom the marginalized group, such as females. It may cause psycho'
logical strain on quota appointees as they generally look down upon by the selec-
tion process on the basis of merit (Zafarullah & Kian, 1989).

Several reasons for difficulties in career opportunities for women have been identi-
fied in research. Ffust, men in managerial positions prefer people with cultural prefer-
ences similar to their own, or that managers have a preference for appointing people
similar in this respect to others already employed in the otganization (Kanter, 1997).

Q.)
r

Nozmul, el al. : Glajs Ceiling Factors, Job Satisfaction, and Job Switching of Female Employees

This kind of homo-sociality implies that men have a tendency to prefer men to
self-reflection, relaxation and social support, the intention being to confirm their
own identity and cultural norms (Lipman-Blumen, 1976; Maume Jr, 1999).
Alother tlpe ofexplanation is based on prevalence ofsexist attitudes, e.g. that men
are better suited t0 leadership positions than are women (Kanter, 1997; Reskin &
Hartrnann, 1986). Such attitudes could be used by men in shategies to secure
power, authority and other privileges (Acker, 1990). Employers avoid promoting
women because women as a group are absent ftom work more than men, child
bearing and childcare responsibilities (where women are assumed to have larger
responsibilities than men) (Rosenfeld, Van Buren, & Kalleberg, 1998). Despite a
well-developed child care system, there seems to be a conflict between work and
family, which cause practicai problem, especially for women with small children
(Ginn et al., 1996). As a consequence, women's aspirations could be lowered and
their career prospects obstructed. Al1 the above mentioned reasons are clearly
comected to the idea ofglass ceiling existence in an organization.

This also could be a consequence of a strong male homo-sociality, where

women are strongly held back from continuing upward mobility at a certain level
of the occupational hierarchy @ihagen, & Ohls, 2006; UNDP, 1993). The
survey identified six perceptions of disparate treatment of women in the adminis-
trative cadre of the BCS (Bangladesh Civil Service). These are (i) negative
attitudes towards women by male colleagues; (ii) doubts of superior officers
about the capabilities (for work) of women officers; (iii) superiority complexes
ofmale colleagues; (iv) tendency of men to treat women in a gender-biased fash-
ion; (v) comments that men were more efficient than women; (vi) non-
cooperation of male colleagues. Hence, the existence of a glass ceiling in an
organization has received considerable attention in recent years.

Research on glass ceiling in Bangladesh is very limited and unexplored. Previ-

ous research in Bangladesh on glass ceiling covered only the public sector enter-
prises ofthe country (Zafarullah, 2000; LIIDP, 1993). Llza and Newaz (2008)
conducted a study to examine the existence ofa glass ceiling in different indus-
tries and service sectors ofBangladesh. This study also attempted to identifu the
I
contributing factors that create glass ceiling effects and women's carcer advance-
ment in an organization. The analysis identihed five factors responsible for glass
ceiling effects that eventually restricts women's career progression at a certain
stage. The identified factors are: management perception, work environment,
work-life conflict, sexual harassment and organizational policy. The study
confirms that the existence of a glass ceiling in the organizations. It also found
that management perception and work environment are the most significant
factors for creating glass ceiling, whereas, organizational policy and work- life
conflict are the second most significant factors. Whereas pleasant appearance,
attitude towards organization, career focused and family support were found to
influence the career advaacement of women in an orsanization.
83
 The Business Review, Vol. 5, 2016

1.2 Women Employment in Bangladesh

Bangladesh is a poor developing country with slow economic progress.

According to the CIA World Factbook (2010), the GDp growrh rate in Bangla_
desh is 6 percent. The Gender Development
Index (GDI)-rant< ofBangladesh is
110 out of 144 countries ol the world, and Gender Empowerment Measure
(GEM) rank is 79 out of 80 countries of the world
based on the 2005 Human
Development Report. The United Nations Development program (lJNDp)
Human Development Report contains two gender-aware
measurements. The frrst
is the Gender-related Development Inaex which disaggregates the three
1CO9,
variables of the Human Development Index (IIDI) (life .*p.itur.y, educational
attainment, and adjusted real income) by gender. The second is the Gender
Empowerment Measure (GEM), which loolis at women,s share of managerial
and professionaljobs, women,s representation
in parliament, and women,s share
ofnational income. The reasons oflow GDI and GEM ranking for Bangladesh
is
the countrf is staggering far behind in terms of female education, particu-
fIaJ
larly in higher education and workforce participation (ESCA?, 1999).
The adult
literacy rate (i5 years and above) of females and males in Bangladesh
is 30.g
percent and 49.9 percent respectively (Human Development
Report, 2003). This
unequal literacy rate is reflected in the low workforce
farticipation, mainly in the
professional and skilled workforce (Hossain, i999). Based
on the Asian Devel_
opment Bank (ADB) Report (2003), the labor force participation rate
ofwomen
is 14.1 percent compared to men,s labor force participation rate of4g.3 percent
in Bangladesh. Unfortunately, the majority oi th. ,"orr., in Bangladesh are
illiterate, poor, and deprived in many areas such as control over assets,
employ-
ment, security, health and nutrition as there is a sigaificant gender
gap in educa_
tion, health, employrnent, income, opportunity and decision_making
(Bangladesh Human D-evelopment Report, 199g).

Nevertheless, due to the demand generated by certain sectors (like

manufac-
turing indushy, mostly in the ready-made garment industry)
of the economy,
female participation in the labor market in Bangladesh has bien
increasing since
the mid-1980s. Studies reveal that policies promoting export_oriente;
Ught
industries in Bangladesh have created a demand for cheap labor,
which, despite
some negative implications, has opened up newjob opportunities
for females in
the garment sector and brought major changes to ttreir lives (Afsar,
1999). In
addition, there are over 1,000 local and national organizations generating
self-
emplol.rnent opportunities for over 8 million poor, mostly females,
through
activities related to micro-credit and training in literacy, technical
skills and legal
rights (ADB,2003).

84
 Vol' 5' 2016
The Busoless Review

1.3 Discrimination
at Work I

AccordingtoHosain(reeer.illtY$'lr'.',.111
where male dominance
u!" uri
ovet \\ur
U..11t-t,1,1
p"** 1"."#il.,i orJr'*o*.n *g.11*.oroorn
i|.ji::ffi*$f, \
are said ro exercise
tii., *.t ;p., of g.na.,
erw. income and women's
labut r,* to, niti.,
relations within
B.trrcltdt:lit:^il ,l ,o.r.rv, .*proTl^l_,,nui.,
*u .uuru_
been on tbe same
,.*, ,J l,i.arrf;ns as for r
tvi]]Ifi;;; in occupa-
females have not sex segregation

lfi ,1f,Hl',,fff lj1x,-ttiffi

are concenffated
in f.t- t::':ili;iljng {.'frt*'t'q1;;;;1i;Tfr
3 conditions in.gene
paying jobs workplace is
,rr*r.-f"* {l ,- .r-- "ovrral rlivision ol taoor, the

rffiffdfi.f#'ffiiil:#ilffi\
;i:'m-l:;;ril1:!:1,*:*,f.ffi:r***'*llff:.trH
i*i:'yl*,:.'I:!*
financial
Hltill*in*r,nt*."
srtrrutt@a,t.i"
independence. Dur
ot
rqvv'
rrrlrr rru,rrr.*son.
women artu
l9gl).
tu'1ure exp
"a I

\
I
tion and discrimination I

resentrv. soc ietv i s -'::lT'[? xi:T [H"'ffi#'[in fi

P
progress.rn 1ne-fl::ffi;;;;;"
ilrl,t'J:lli:i the
lave made significant educared females
industrres tn Ban una
rabor in the garment
.iadt. una upper clas
levet arerJl#?;;,
':*:1'lr"Ii,l'l;l'a,-.,1t'l'iu'iru"o" to'
.n what they can aspire
ir,. uai.i svstem that "o'"
*:;::.ri'q";ii
*1lT::t#J:"ilt[:
inespecrive of rheir
car:;.;rilil *di*,t'.v
talenls,
it ii extremely
i,u"i i,.B"c]i9l^l'.;J;i;Iil,; ;t a job even.with
very good
[mates
',*t.t
withil the patrrarchat s-
curnrral ideologies
rc*r""., oer iohs. tmdirionat

lfrffi F.*iliiiffi
resulr in occuparional
segreganon
*'-*":ffiand socia[ in
restrictioos are imPosed
females with males'
on rne iirrn.i'"rr"ott,a,
''.'-{ffi

86
 et al. : Glass Ceilihg Factots, Job Satisloctio , and Job Switching oJ Female Enployees
^tazmul,

Jn the other hand, in the family, a female person's life is controlled through
rle authority, by imposing the whole burden of domestic work upon her, in
dition to the paid work or employment in the public sphere or at the worlglace.
iost males feel that domestic work like child-rearing, childbeadng, cooking,
ad washing clothes are not their job, and also some of them thinks that it is
,elow their dignity to perform those responsibilities. By defining females as
ximary domestic workers and sexual and reproductive property of men, and by
assigning priority to male paid employment, society devalues both the educa-
tional talent, ard the economic and social contributions offemales.

By setting their imprisonment within restricted spaces, educated females of

Bangladesh are mainly concentrated in feminized professions like teaching
(horizontal occupational segregation), where they also remain in lower job
categories than males (vertical occupational segregation). Also, females tend to
be excluded from the informal networks dominated by males at the organizations
which are crucial for career development of an employee (Wirth, 2002).
Although Bangladesh presently has and also had two women in leading roles in
the Parliament since 1991; one as Prime Minister and the other as Leader ofthe
Opposition; educated females are still discriminated compared with males, and
excluded flom many areas in private sector industries, as evident by their low
level ofrepresentation in top managerial positions.

Nevertheless, recent studies show that as with all quota systems, there have
been administrative issues in relation to equitable and fair heatment (Hossain,
2007). It has been found that many positions reserved for females are not filled
because ofgender biases in administration. Also, in several cases, these reserved
positions are filled from within the regional quotas. Thus, most females who are
bom and raised in rural areas fail to get into the public or civil service due to lack
of access to information. The Public Service Commission @SC) in Bangladesh
has also been unable to improve the actual implementation ofthe quota system
and the way it is perceived. This is partly because ofthe abuse by adminisfrators
to drive their relatives and friends into the system. Unfofunately, neither the
PSC nor the govemment organizations on a regular basis, monitor and evaluate
the working ofthe quota system and its impact on equity and access issues. As
evident from the case ofBangladesh, quotas have actually limited the opportuni-
ties for females to enter the civil service and have failed to eliminate discrimina-
tion against females (Zafarullah, 2000).

87
 T

The Business Reiew' Vol 5' 2016

in organiza-
thal women's plofessional careers
The review of literature reveals
norms' political pressues
,t#;;;;rt fl,enced by familv' socio-cultural
ly t
mav also influence a person's
*offi "
*tff as social life' In Bangladesh'

;':ffi;ffiili"e *ari'li"tution tt'o'n high school1un.ets! men m

"'v rnt' In some cases' women outperform
ffiil;J",.r) .oi,pu"d
i"
to
ltfiege levels {tlh*gh in
Bangla-
various public examinations "f'"ti-""d i' mJnu*ter of female employees'
desh, there has been a significantiit"u" employ-
mostly in the privat. ,.tto' i'Oo't'it' if"
'i' rrnfuit otu*tnt thai female
not understood'
pnvut. i'ou'#t' i"gf mostly
ees face at the
"tto' 'a*f" 'e *'.:1!li
culhral factors
The literature indicates that organizational I?*
of different orgam-
the relative absence of female
emllovees in the management
i' iitt"n"'a most$ organiza-
zations. The gender gup in oire"It"Jt-g-#uiion'
tional culture as well as no*'in tnt environment that the organizations
'otaf t'opirituitu'dtott t*ists concerning specific
are operating in. Tt]e,e i' titttt 't'ut in,the top- management
il#;il;rlry influence rtniurt t'provtt absente
Basedon very'few studies
levels in the private sector indu*"t ''i"tgf'atsh femaie employ-
have documented tht
toi't'uinis or o'tstactes ttrat aftect
'pttitit p'i'uatt industries Most of the existing
ees' career development in tf" "ttor conditions
rocus and thus may not .caPture
literature has an exclusive westJm to
utntt, would be particularly valuable
found in Banglade,rl'
'J'into*ation
for employers, _policy makers, change
agents,
ffi;;;",d.ilr*endation
;;;;;h.rt, academics and students amongst others'
l.4IllPothesis literature
two hypotheses First"fromlhe above
This research will incorporate .rgad-
study, it is hypothesized that
review and the conceptual framewonrlfthe but
zational culture not only inluences
fe.ul. t*pioyttt' careeradvancement'
industriesin Bangladesh' From
,ft. it"**ift, entry in jobs in priuate sector
on how or what tvpe of
this srudv, it is possible tt tt]';;;J;t;;derstanding
*ooro ut a women-friendlv work environment'
t"x*g
:[.ir,r.',#iJilt other factors-such as family obliga-
Secondly, apart frorn o'gnn"u'iorlui
'uliue'
il;:;ffi p";: :r:i*m,f*;#li:,n:H n
ilftT::,f fi :,:
entrv and career Progresslon are:
iililrt *,ii..-i,iitd o"t'tti later' Hence' the testable hlTotheses
II r. organizational .,'Y:.1'i#,Y
ment. but also determines thelr er iT*1'J;:1 fffiIl:",'ff :ffi
'"
'.rH:
politi-
tx2. Apan &om organi'utionur
i'i*tJ' oifter lactors such as family obligations'
e^pectations also influence
women's entry and career
cal pressures. social norms 'nO
in Bangladesh'
.irl..t**, in private sector industries
:

ll
ll
 Nazn , el al. : Glass Ceiling Factors, Job Satisfaction, and Job Switching of Female Employees

. 2. DATAAND METIIOD0L0GY
This quaatitative study conducted stmctured questionnaire survey of 177 female
employees from two private sector industries - banking and telecommunication in
Bangladesh. The data were collected in December 20 I 6 by using random sampling
techniques. This research used Ordered Logit Models, since the variables were
measured on an ordinal scale ftom highly satisfied to highly dissatisfied. Other
reasons for using logit model are:
i. 0utcome variable is categorical from predictor variables that are continuous
and/or categorical.
ii. The outcome variable must be discrete.

Regression Model

The study used Ordered Logit and Binary Logit regressions. The functional
forms ofthe equations are as follows:
x33)
Y1=/(X1, ..., (1)
Y2= l(x1,...,x33) a)
The measurements ofthe variables are as follows:

X1 Age (0= up to 25 years age, 1= up to 30 years, 2: up to 35 years, 3= up

to 40 yean, 4= more than 40 years ofage)
x2 Marital Status (0= single, 1=narried)
x3 Education (0= bachelor, 1= masters)
x4 Remained unemployed for 6 month & more time after graduation, yes=1,
n0=0)
x5 Having break in career, yes= I , no=O)
X6 Received career guidance from any mentor; yes=l, no-O)
X7 Using network toget thejob, yes=I, no=0)
x8 Tenure - Totaljob experience year (0= up to I years of experience, l=
up to 3 years, 2= up to 5 years, 3= up to l0 years, 4= more than l0 years)
Tenure- Cunentjob experience year (0= up to 1 years of experience, l=
up to 3 years, 2= up to 5 yea6, 3= up to 10 years, 4= more than 10 years)
x10 Industry Type (1= Bank, 0= Telco)
xl1 Have training yes=1, no-0)
xt2 Cunent position, Entry level=1, Mid-level=2, higher mid-level=3, high
level=4)
x13 Having administrative responsibility, l:yes, 0=no)
xl4 Salary level, $500=1, $1000=2, $2000=3, $2000+=4)
xl5 Satisfaction about salary, yes=l, no=0)
x16 Previously refused to take job anltime, yes=1, no=0)
 The Busihess Review Vol. 5' 2016

x17 Having conflict betweenjob and family life, yes=l, no=0)

Sma1l children requiring care at workplace,
yes=1, no=0)
x18
' x19 Family Status (1= joint family, 0= nuclear family)
x20 Discriminated in the job interview as women, yes=1 no=0)
x2l Discrimimted by any male colleague, yes=l, no=0)
x22 Discriminated women by management, yes=1, no=0)
as

x23 Sexual harassment in job, yes=1, no=0)

x24 Socially kolated in workplace as women' yes=[' no=0)
x25 g,,.fua.A n'o* l*portanimeeting in workplace as women' yes=l ' no=0)
in the job as women'
x26 Discrimination for authority handover for decision
yes=3. Norsure=2, no=1)
the job as women'
x27 iiscrimination to move higher management position in
yes=3. Not-sure=2, no=1)
x28 biscrimination for promotion as woman, yes= I , no=0)

x29 Discriminatedinfinancialbenefitsofthejobaswomen,yes=3.No!sure=2,
no=l)
skl1ls recognition as women' yes=3'
Nol
x30 Ois"ii.ioation in .fficiencyi
sure=2, no=1)
x31 Lessjob security women, yes=1, no=0)
as

x32 Having network like man, yes=l. Not-sure=2, no=3)

x33 Chanc-esof man getting job is more than women, yes=1'
no=0) -
Or.*tt 1ot tatitfa.tion, very satisfred =4, satisfied=3, not satisfied=2'
very dissatisfied=1)
Y2 Plan to change job within 5 years, yes=l, no=0)

3' ANALYSIS AND f,INDtrlGS

3.1 Descriptive AnalYsis

(47%) is between 30-35 years

Among the respondents, the maioritv of them
ti,tal women are maniea iraUte I & Table 2) All of them
have
.fi,
"TJEOX
tertiary
"f
education, where 60% passed masters degree'
 Nazmtl et al. : Glass Ceiling Factors, Job Satiifactiofi, and Job Switching
of Female Employees

1. Demographic andjob information of the women

employees
Variables0l234Total
I| 19
(33%) 84 (47%) 2t (t2oa t\ 6yo) t (tyo) 177
71 (40y0 106 (600/0)
\? s! (33yt ne (670/0)
117
13 150 (85%) 27 (\s%)
w
11 n7

ry n802%) 4ee8n fl1

\7 s6(32%)
121 (68y1 w
0) g3%) 70 (40%) 30 07n B Qo/o) 5 (3%) 177
ry y71 (40y0)
-Ie 8e (50%) 64 Q6%) 27 (1s%) rc ianl s izyt 177
1,
(s0%)
I10 e6 (s4%) 81(46%)
88 n7
ryl 2t(12y1 4QW 3Qyl 177
w
\!2 7e (45v0 14e(84%)
(s5%)
Il3 e8 n7
133 (1so/o) 41 (23%) t (1%) 2 (1%) 177
\l! 7t (44%) 100 (s6Yo)
rc=z, rys 132 (75y0) 4s Qsn
n7
4! 149 (84o/o) 28 (16%)
n7
\17 w
I18 t4s (82y0) 32 (r8yo) n7
x19 18 (670/o) 59 (33%) fi1

, . Trble 2. Glass Ceiling related status of the women employees (Continued.)

Variables0I234Total
_ __

x20 159 (90%) 18 (10%) fi.l

x2t 153 (86%) 24(t4yo) fi.l
x22 150(85%) 27 (1s%) w
x23 169 (95yA 86yl n.7
rsg (90%) t8 (t0%)
\24 w
\?s 162 (e2%) 11515 (8%) (6s%) 46 Q6%) t6(s%)
u7
\?!
x27 9s (s4%) 53 (30%) 2s (16%)
177
t77
\28 156(88%) 21(12%) w
x29 128 (72%) 38 (TfA tl rc%) n7
t10 (62%) s3 (30%) 14 (8o/o)
ars I!0
x31 162 (92%) ls (8%) 177
lve n7
x33
eT(s2oa
11? 121 (68%) s6 (32%) 5eQ3%) 26(ts%) r77
n7
3 Q%) 6s (37%) 48 6t (34%) 177
11
y2 83 (47o/o) 94 (s3%) Q7%)
fi1

91
 The Business Review, Vol. 5, 2016

3.2 Regression Analysis

There are several demographic, job related, and glass ceiling related factors
that statistically signilicantly affect on flie overall job satisfaction (Y1) of the
female employees in Bangladesh (Table 3). The p-value of the LR stat is 0.029
that shows a very good fit ofthe model 1. The pseudo R-square is 0.124. Some
of the variables show Odd ratio more than 1, indicaling job satisfaction, and
below 1, indicating job dissatisfaction. it is found that those who have break in
career (X5), also receive career guidelines from any mentors (X6), and have
network as like as maa (X32) are not satisfied in their cunentjob. On the other
hand, those who are involved in the currentjob for a long time (X9) and satisfied
about their salary (X15) are also satisfied in their current job. Iurther, the
employee working in the banking sectorholds morejob satisfaction than those of
telecommunication sector (X1 0).

Interestingly, there is no glass ceiling related variable that is statistically

significaat with the job satisfaction. The reason is that women in Bangladesh
faces obstacle in their career for different reasons rather than the glass ceiling. It
is also remarkable that those who are somehow falling behind due to break in
careers are also very cautious about their career and not satisfied about their
current positions. Similarly, those who are career oriented and expecting to earn
more, maintain networks, consult others about career and switch job fiequently
holds lessjob satisfaction and less loyalty about their employer. This tendency is
found more in the case oftelecommunication sector wherejob satisfaction is less
than banking sector. However, none of these issues are related to the issue of
glass ceiling.

Table 3. Regression ouryut on the factor influencing thejob satisfaction of female employees

Model 1 Model 2
Variable
Odd Ratio Frob. Odd R.atio Prob,
xl 1.040613 0.4526 1.022 0;7062
x2 1.094481 0.8019 0.282 0.0158
x3 1.041287 0.917'7 0.388 0.1105
x4 1.127',7 45 0.8118 0.432 0.3031
x5 0.147'79 0.0064 l6.l6l 0.096
0.515702 0.0874 2.095 0.1906
x7 0.838299 0.6468 1.522 0.4523
x8 0.714881 0.1324 1.355 0.4089
x9 1.619891 0.0279 0.546 0.1207
x10 2.1t2387 0.0276 0.546 0.2228
xll 0.641346 0.2725 3.888 0.014
xt2 0.741333 0.4804 1.853 0.3392

92

t'
I

.
 Nazmxl, et al. : Glass Ceiling Factots, Job Satisfaction, ohd Job Switchi g ol Fehale Employees

x13 1.14322 0.6989 1.578 0.3538

xt4 0.77 4064 0.5027 0.669 0.ss54
x15 2.424568 0.0194 0.720 0.5505
xl6 0.714052 0.4287 4.892 0.0088
xl7 1.338735 0.6431 0.496 0.4756
xt8 1.75016r 0.2871 3.592 0.1486
xl9 0.558224 0.1023 2.405 0.1066
x20 2.586595 0.1687 1.130 0.9066
x2t 0.615885 0.402s 16.708 0.0339
x22 0.682359 0.4817 2.013 0.5023
x23 1.840618 0.4814 0.134 0.2305
x24 1.700917 0 5?qq 0.003 0.0052
x25 0.356701 0.1155 0.230 0.2436
x26 0.73602s 0.3142 0.647 0.3s42
x27 0.931s9 0.8097 2.827 0.03s5
x28 0.618886 0.4857 44,099 0.0 r94
x29 0.860608 0.6555 1.285 0.6426
x30 1.038801 0.901 0.920 0.861I
x31 1.828916 0.4385 52,387 0.0362
x32 0.636552 0.0984 0.223 0.0009
x33 1.1.99314 0.6537 0.628 0.4693
Y2 1.088812 0.8302
Y1 1.347 0.270t

YI Y2
Dependent Variable
Model Tlpe Ordered Logit Binary Logit
Pseudo R-squared 0.124748
Schwarz criterion 3.1091 I 1 .77 6957
Hannan-Quinn criter. 2.7t 4437 1.414285
LR statistic 51.13822
Prob(LR statistic) 0.029805
Akaike info criterion 2.445169 1.166849
Log likelihood -179.397
Restr. log likelihood 204.967 -69.26613
Avg. log likelihood -1.01355 -0.391334
Mean dependent var 0.531073 0.531073
S.E. ofregression 0.395235 0.395235
22.33814 22.33814
The Odd ratios are calculated as d$

93
 The Business Review, Vol. 5, 2016

There are several demographic, job related, and glass ceiling related factors
that statistically significantly affect the plan of changing the cunent job (Y2) of
the women employees. Some of the variables show Odd ratio more than l,
indicating having influences on willingness to shifting or changing jobs within 5
years. Those who have training (X1 l) or consider themselves more skilled would
like to switch or change to better jobs. Those who have refused to take job
anytime before (X16) also would like to change their present jobs.

More importantly, unlike the job satisfaction, there are several glass ceiling
factors that influence the plan of changing the present job (Y2) of the women
employees. Those women employees, who feel that they are discriminated by
any male colleague (X2 I ), discriminated for moving up the higher management
positions (X27), discriminated for promotion (X28), and holding lessjob security
(X31) would like to switch to better jobs. Though theses glass ceiling factors
show statistically significant relationship with their plan to change job, only
8-16% ofthe employees agreed that these glass ceiling factors are available in
their present jobs. On the other hand, some other factors show a statistically
significant relationship with not willing to change jobs, like the married women
(X2) or the women who like to be isolated in the workplace $24) or those who
have a good network and understanding within the organization (X32).

4. DISCUSSIONS
Women's professional careers in organizations are mainly influenced by
family, socio-cultural norms, political pressures and these may also influence a
person's working as well as social life. Among the women, those who are involved
in their presentjob for a long time and satisfied about their salaries are also satis-
fied in their presentjobs. Beyond the job satisfaction, women employees are also
likely to change their jobs if they have training or consider themselves more
skilled as well as in the case ifthey have refused to take job an1'time before. Inter-
estingly, there is no glass ceiling related variables that are statistically significant
with the job satisfaction, but there are several glass ceiling factors that influence
the plan of changing or switching the present job. Those who feel that they are
discriminated by any male colleague, discriminated for moving to higher manage-
ment positions, discriminated for promotion, and holding less job security would
likely to change theirjobs. 0vera11, the women employees working in the banking
sector hold more job satisfaction than those of the telecommunication sector- This
study has attempted to determine the extent to which female employees of
Bangladesh face the problem ofglass ceiling and the types of barriers they face,
in order to provide recommendations that would help overcome the problem. This
study has certain significant implications. It has been suggested whether glass
ceiling is an acute problem for female employees in Bangladesh. Also, *re study
revealed the reasons for the prevalence ofglass ceiling in Bangladesh.

94
 Nazmul, et al. : Glass Ceiling Factots, Job Satisfaction, ahd Job Switching of Female Enployees

I factors Gender discrimination and salary disparities were reported by women partici-
(Y2) of pating in this study, as was resenfinent by men toward women regarding affirma-
than l, tive action issues. Women in this study also believe that corporate culhres and
within 5 maintenance of men's power results in several unwitten rules: like women are
d would fine to be hired, but only for certain types ofjobs in certain areas such as commu-
ake job nications, customer service where women will work harder than men, and
because women are willing to work harder, they will be given more work.

ceiling The literature suggests that both organizational cultural factors and extemal
women environmental factors of an organization can account for the low proportion of
rted by female employees at the top level of different organizations and these factors are
Sement very much contexlspecific. Thus the focus of this research is, to identifu and
ecurity examine obstacles, which lead to female employee absence in the top manage-
factors ment level ofprivate sector industries in Bangladesh. It aims to provide a current
r, only understanding ofthe career experiences of female employees based on organiza-
rble in tional culture typologies, which could lead to better utilization oftalented women
tically
in the present competitive private sector industries in Bangladesh. The essential
r'omen
foundation of constructive social change is good understanding, ard the research
e who
will hopefully contribute to both. This study made an attempt to identifu the
causes of glass ceiling effects in the private sectors of Bangladesh and recom-
mended solutions for such.

:d by
5. CONCLUSIONS AND R.ECOMMENDATIONS
nce a
This research on women employees discovered a significant relationship
olved
between the gender stereotype of a woman employee and her career aspiration.
satis-
: also The findings also reveal that women employees possess all the attributes for top
more management; but what affects them are family issues, individual factors
nter- (gender-imposed) and organizational factors. From the analysis, some sugges-
icant tions provided by successful female managers on what can make women better
ence managers or leaders are grouped and listed as: Gender-sensitivity in the orgaaiza-
I ate tion, women's education/education of the girl child, male involvement in home
age' front care, leadership training and development for women, mentoring of
ould women and social networking among women. In order to improve the situa-
king tion, several initiatives need to be taken in the organizations. Awareness creation
Ihis or awareness building about gender discriminations and gender sensitivities
iof among the male and female employees can improve the situation. Moreover,
'ace,
organizational policies need to be focused on standard and ethical Human
fhis
Resource (HR) practices. There should be strict and standard HR policies and
lass
guidelines to deal with issues or cases ofdiscriminations, harassments and other
rdy
related gender sensitive matters.

95
 Naztfiul, et al. : Glass Ceiling Faclors, Job Satitfaction, a d Job Syritching of Female Employees

Gender discrimination and salary disparities were repolted by women partici-

pating in this study, as was resentment by men toward women regarding affilma-
tive action issues. Women in this study also believe that corporate cultures and
maintenalce of men's power results in several unwritten rules: like women are
fine to be hired, but only for certain tlpes ofjobs in certain areas such as connnu-
nications, customer seflice where women will work harder than men, and
because women are willing to work harder, they will be given more work.
The literature suggests that both organizational cultural factors and extemal
environmental factors of an organization can account for the low proportion of
female employees at the top level ofdifferent organizations and these factors are
very much context-specific. Thus the focus of this research is, to identifi/ and
examine obstacles, which lead to female employee absence in the top manage-
ment level ofprivate sector industries in Bangladesh. It aims to provide a cunent
understaading of the career experiences of female employees based on organiza-
tional culture typologies, which could lead to better utilization oftalented women
in the present competitive private sector industries in Bangladesh. The essential
foundation ofconstructive social change is good understanding, and the research
will hopefully contribute to both. This study made an attempt to identify the
causes of glass ceiling effects in the private sectors of Bangladesh and recom-
mended solutions for such.

5, CoNCtUSIoNs AND REC0MMENDATIONS

This research on women employees discovered a significant relationship
between the gender stereotype ol a woman employee and her career aspiration.
The findings also reveal that women employees possess all the attributes for top
managemen! but what affects them are family issues, individual factors
(gender-imposed) and organizational factors. From the analysis, some sugges-
tions provided by successful female managers on what can make women better
managers or leaders are grouped and listed as: Gender-sensitivity in the organiza-
tion, women's education/education of the girl child, male involvement in home
front care, leadership training and development for women, mentoring of
women and social networking among women. In order to improve the situa-
tion, several initiatives need to be taken in the organizations. Awareness creation
or awareness building about gender discriminations and gender sensitivities
among the male and female employees can improve the situation. Moreover,
organizational policies need to be focused on standard and ethical Human
Resource (HR) practices. There should be strict and standard HR policies and
guidelines to deal with issues or cases of discriminations, harassments and other
related gender sensitive mafters.
 The Business Review, Vol.
5, 2016

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