Crop Production Handout
1. Planting Materials
Planting materials are the foundational elements used to establish new crops. They are
selected based on crop type, growing conditions, and desired outcomes. The main types of
planting materials include:
- Seeds: These can be hybrid or open-pollinated varieties. They must be viable,
disease-free, and adapted to the local environment.
- Seedlings: Young plants grown in nurseries and later transplanted into the main field.
- Splits: Parts of mature plants divided and replanted, e.g., in grasses like Napier.
- Crowns: The growing tip of certain plants, like pineapples.
- Slips, Cuttings, and Suckers: Vegetative parts used in propagation for crops like bananas,
sweet potatoes, and sugarcane.
These planting materials are divided into two;
● Sexual propagation planting materials
● Asexual propagation planting materials
Sexual propagation: This refers to the multiplication of plant by seeds. In a sexual process
which it involves the fusion of male and female gametes to produce seeds. It is known as
sexual (seed) propagation since the propagation is through seed and also because sexes are
involved.
Advantages of seed propagation (sexual)
● Seedlings trees generally live longer, bear more heavily and are harder than
vegetative propagated trees.
● Seed propagation sometimes results in the production of chance seedlings with
superior characteristics
● Seeds offer convenient method of storing plants for a longtime
● Plants which are difficult to propagate e.g. pawpaw by vegetative method can only
be propagated by seeds.
Disadvantages of seed propagation
● Owing to genetic segregation in heterozygous plants, seedlings trees are not
● uniform in their growth.
● Seedling trees take more time to come to bearing compared to grafted plants
● Continuous seed propagation results to infertility in the progeny.
● Sexually propagated plants have long preparing period
Asexual propagation
Can also be referred to as vegetative propagation. This is the reproduction by means of
vegetative parts of the plant such as roots, shoots and leaves other than seed. Sexes are
not involved in this propagation. The vegetative organs of many plants have got the
ability to regenerate to produce new individuals.
Advantages of a sexual reproduction
● Propagation by vegetative means is some time easier more rapid and economical
than seeds.
● Budding and grafting may be used to make a certain fruit adoptable in unfavorable
environmental conditions.
● Vegetative propagated materials are usually less vigorous compared to seed
propagated.
● Vegetative propagated plants are more precious in bearing.
● Certain injuries can be repaired by means of bridge grafting
Disadvantages of sexual reproduction
● No new variety can be evolved by means of vegetative method of propagation.
● Its more expensive than seeds propagation in most cases.
● Vegetative propagated plants are comparatively less hardy.
● Transmit viral diseases from plant to plant
Plant propagation by separation and division
Many herbaceous species that die back at the end of the growing season have
underground food storage organs that survive the dormancy periods. These organs are
also vegetative propagation structures that produce new shoots in growing season. The
variety of underground storage organs may be grouped into two classes based on how
they are propagated: Plant propagated by separation and plants propagated by division.
Plants propagated by separation
Separation is a method of propagation in which underground structures of plants are
divided not by cutting but by breaking along natural lines between segments. Separation is
breaking away of daughter structures from the parent structure to be used to establish
new plants. The two specialized underground structures are bulbs and corns.
Bulb: A bulb is a specialized underground organ that consist predominantly of fleshy
leaf scales growing on basal plate.
Types of bulbs
There are two types of bulbs:
● Tunicate bulb
● Non-tunicate bulb
Tunicate bulb: These are bulbs that have outer bulb scale that are dry and membranous.
This covering provide protection from drying and mechanical injury to the bulb. Mostly
found in onion and tulip among others.
Non-tunicate bulbs: These are bulbs that do not possess the enduring dry covering.
The scales are separated and attached to the basal plate.
Corms: These are bulbs consisting of predominantly modified leaves. A corm is a
modified stem examples of plant with corms include: Amorplallus, colocasia, gladielus.
Plant propagation by division: This is a method of propagation of plants using cut
section of a particular part like rhizome, tuber, and tuberous root.
Rhizome: This is a specialized stem structure in which the main axis of the plant grows
horizontally just below or on the surface of the ground.
Stolon: Describes various types of horizontally growing stems that produce
adventitious roots when they come into contact with the soil. Mostly found in mint,
bermuda grass among others.
Runner: This is a specialized stem that develops from the axil of a leaf at the crown of
plant. It grows horizontally along the ground and forms a new plant at one of the nodes.
Stem tuber: This is a specialized swollen underground stem which possess eyes in
regular order over the surface. Propagation by tubers can be done either by planting the
tubers whole or by cutting them into sections. Example of a crop propagated by stem
tuber is a potato.
Plant propagation by cuttings
Classification of cuttings
Stem cuttings are usually classified into 3 groups according to the particular part of the
plant used as cuttings. They include:
● Stem cuttings
● Root cuttings
● Leaf cuttings
● Stem cuttings
Can be divided into 4types based on the degree of maturity and lignification of wood
used in cuttings.
● Hardwood stem cuttings
● Semi-hardwood stem cuttings
● Soft wood stem cuttings
● Herbaceous stem cuttings
Propagation by layering
Layering is the developing of roots on a stem while it is still attached to the parent plant.
Advantages of layering
● Do not require much care and arrangement like cutting.
● The mother plant supplies nutrient and other metabolites as it remains attached
while rooting.
Disadvantages of layering
● It is a costly method
● It is a slow process
● Limited number of plants can be propagated
Classification of layering
● Ground layering
● Tip layering
● Simple layering
● Trench layering
● Stool layering
● Compound layering
Tip layering: Is generally followed in plants which have trailing type f shoots.
Procedure for tip layering
1. Dig a hole 3-4 inches deep
2. Insert the tip of a current seasons sheet and cover it with soil
3. The tip grows downward first, then bends sharply and grows upward.
4. The received tip becomes a new plant
5. Remove the tip layer and plant it in late fall or early springs.
6. Examples of plants propagated by tip layering include purple and dark raspberries.
Air layering
Roots from an aerial shoot. The rooting medium is tied to the shoot getting root initiation.
Procedure for air layering Air layering
● Select a healthy branch of previous seasons growth
● At point 15-30 cm back from the tip of the shoot, make a girdle just below a node by
completely removing a strip of bark 2cm wide all around the shoot.
● Scrape the exposed surface lightly to remove traces of a phloem or cambium to
retard healing.
● In difficult to root species, treat the girdle portion with the recommended growth
regulator to induce better rooting.
● Cover the girdle portion with moist propagating medium, sphagnum mass, saw
dust.
● Tie the medium around the girdled portion using a polythene sheet.
● Tying should be perfect so that no water can enter treated part.
● Separate the root zone and transplant the layer appropriately after observing the
fully developed roots through the transparent sheet.
Propagation by grafting and budding
Grafting: This is an art of joining parts of two independent plants in such a
manner that they unite and grow together in a single independent plant.
Scion: the part of the graft combination which is to become the upper portion
of the new plant.
Root stock: The part which is to become a root system
Methods of grafting
● Approach grafting
● Veneer grafting
● Epicotyl grafting
● Soft wood grafting
Approach grafting
The distinguishing feature of this method of grafting is that two independent plants on
their own roots are grafted together. This method provides a means of establishing a
successful union between certain plants which are difficult to graft by any other method
as the two plants will be on their own roots till the formation of a successful graft e.g.
Guava, Mango etc.
Procedure of carrying out approach grafting
i) Select a healthy shoot having a girth 3.5cm girth on the selected mother plant
which is to be used as a scion source
ii) Select a rootstock (raised in a pit) having approximately the same size as that of
the selected shoot on the mother plant
iii) On the internode region, her the union is to occur, a slice of bark and wood 2.5
to 5cm long is cut from both the selected stock and scion shoots.
iv) The cut to be given on the stock and scion should be of the same size.
v) NB: The cuts should be perfectly smooth so that a close contact of the cambial
layers of stock and scion is brought about when they are pressed together.
vi) Tie the two cut surfaces together tightly with a string or cloth.
Budding
This is method of grafting where only one bud with a piece of bark and with or without
wood is used as the scion material. The plant that grows after union of the stock is called
budding.
Methods of budding
● T-budding
● Inverted t-budding
● Patch budding
● Ring budding
2. Tillage Operations
Tillage refers to the mechanical manipulation of soil to create favourable conditions for seed
germination and crop growth. The operations are categorised into:
Primary Tillage includes initial soil breaking using tools like moldboard plows. It helps
loosen soil and bury crop residues.
Secondary Tillage involves finer operations like harrowing and leveling to break soil clods
and prepare a finer seedbed.
- Tertiary Operations: These are site-specific practices such as ridging, bed formation, or
creating furrows for water retention and crop spacing.
3. Soil Conservation
Soil conservation involves measures that protect soil from erosion, degradation, and
nutrient loss. Key practices include:
- Contour Planting: Growing crops along the natural contours of the land to reduce runoff
and erosion.
- Terracing: Constructing step-like structures on slopes to reduce water speed and soil loss.
-
Gabbions: Wire mesh structures filled with stones to stabilize slopes and control erosion.
- Mulching: Application of organic or inorganic cover over soil to conserve moisture, reduce
erosion, and add nutrients.
- Cover Cropping: Growing specific crops like legumes to cover soil during off-seasons,
which also improves soil fertility.
- Minimum Tillage: Reducing tillage to the minimum necessary to maintain soil structure
and reduce erosion.
- Crop Rotation: Alternating crops each season to balance soil nutrient use and reduce pests.
- Intercropping: Planting different crops in proximity to improve biodiversity, yield, and pest
control.
4. Farm Inputs
Farm inputs are resources used in the production of crops to improve yield, manage soil
fertility, and protect plants from pests and diseases. They include:
- Fertilizers: These can be organic (compost, farmyard manure) or inorganic (NPK, urea)
and are applied to enhance plant nutrition.
Important macronutrients and micronutrients in crop growth:
🌱 Essential Nutrients for Crop Growth
🔹 Macronutrients (needed in large amounts)
1. Nitrogen (N)
○ Function: Promotes leafy, green growth; essential for chlorophyll
production.
○ Deficiency Symptoms: Yellowing of older leaves, stunted growth.
○ Sources: Urea, ammonium nitrate, manure.
2. Phosphorus (P)
○ Function: Encourages root development, flower and seed formation, and
energy transfer.
○ Deficiency Symptoms: Purplish leaves, poor root growth.
○ Sources: DAP (Di-Ammonium Phosphate), rock phosphate, bone meal.
3. Potassium (K)
○ Function: Strengthens plant structure, improves drought resistance and
disease tolerance.
○ Deficiency Symptoms: Scorched or yellow leaf edges.
○ Sources: Muriate of potash, wood ash, compost.
4. Calcium (Ca)
○ Function: Important for cell wall strength and root development.
○ Deficiency Symptoms: Weak stems, blossom-end rot in fruits.
○ Sources: Lime (calcium carbonate), gypsum.
5. Magnesium (Mg)
○ Function: Central component of chlorophyll, helps in photosynthesis.
○ Deficiency Symptoms: Interveinal yellowing (veins remain green).
○ Sources: Dolomitic lime, Epsom salts.
6. Sulfur (S)
○ Function: Needed for protein synthesis and enzyme activity.
○ Deficiency Symptoms: Uniform yellowing of young leaves.
○ Sources: Ammonium sulfate, gypsum, organic matter.
🔹 Micronutrients (needed in smaller amounts)
1. Zinc (Zn)
○ Function: Helps in hormone production and enzyme systems.
○ Deficiency: Shortened internodes, small leaves.
○ Sources: Zinc sulfate.
2. Iron (Fe)
○ Function: Vital for chlorophyll synthesis.
○ Deficiency: Yellowing between leaf veins (especially young leaves).
○ Sources: Ferrous sulfate, compost.
3. Manganese (Mn)
○ Function: Involved in photosynthesis and nitrogen assimilation.
○ Deficiency: Pale leaves with dark green veins.
○ Sources: Manganese sulfate.
4. Copper (Cu)
○ Function: Needed for lignin formation and enzyme function.
○ Deficiency: Dieback of shoot tips, pale young leaves.
○ Sources: Copper sulfate.
5. Boron (B)
○ Function: Essential for cell wall formation and reproductive growth.
○ Deficiency: Deformed fruits or roots, hollow stems.
○ Sources: Borax, boric acid.
6. Molybdenum (Mo)
○ Function: Helps plants use nitrogen efficiently.
○ Deficiency: Yellowing and poor nodulation in legumes.
○ Sources: Sodium molybdate.
- Seeds: Certified, high-quality seeds are crucial for successful crop production.
- Vegetative Propagation Materials: These include slips, cuttings, suckers, and other plant
parts used in crops that don't grow well from seeds.
- Manures: Organic inputs that add nutrients and organic matter to the soil.
- Herbicides and Pesticides: Chemicals used to control weeds, pests, and diseases.
- Irrigation Equipment: Tools and systems used to supply water during dry periods.
- Tools and Machinery: Hand tools, tractors, sprayers, and harvesters that assist in farm
operations.
