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QUANTITATIVE
SOCIAL SCIENCE
DATA WITH
An Introduction

Brian J. Fogarty SAGE

@SAGE
Los Angeles | London | New Delhi
‘Singapore | Washington DC | Melbourne

SAGE Publications Ltd © Brian J. Fogarty 2019

1 Oliver's Yard
55 City Road First published 2019
London EC1Y 1SP

SAGE Publications Inc.

2455 Teller Road
Thousand Oaks, California 91320 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private
study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright,
SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may be reproduced,
B 1/1 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area stored or transmitted in any form, or by any means, only with the prior
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New Delhi 110 044 reproduction, in accordance with the terms of licences issued by
the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction
SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte Ltd outside those terms should be sent to the publishers.
3 Church Street
#10-04 Samsung Hub
Singapore 049483

Editor: Jai Seaman Library of Congress Control Number: 2018941250

Assistant editor: Charlotte Bush
Production editor: lan Antcliff British Library Cataloguing in Publication data
Copyeditor: Richard Leigh
Proofreader: Neville Hankins
Indexer: Martin Hargreaves
Marketing manager: Ben Griffin-Sherwood
Cover design: Shaun Mercier
A catalogue record for this book is available from
Typeset by: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd, Chennai, India
the British Library
Printed in the UK

ISBN 978-1-5264-1149-5
ISBN 978-1-5264-1150-1 (pbk)

At SAGE we take sustainability seriously, Most of our products are printed in the UK using responsibly sourced papers and
boards. When we print overseas we ensure sustainable papers are used as measured by the PREPS grading system.
We undertake an annual audit to monitor our sustainability.
 CONTENTS
Preface
About the Author
Online Resources xi

1 Introduction

2 Introduction to R and RStudio

3 Finding Data

4 Data Management 35

5S Variables and Manipulation 55

6 Developing Hypotheses 75

7 Univariate and Descriptive Statistics 87

8 Visualising Data 113

9 Hypothesis Testing 149

10 Bivariate Analysis 16S

11 Linear Regression and Model Building 191

12 OLS Assumptions and Diagnostic Testing 217

13 Putting It All Together 249

Bibliography 306
Index 308
 PREFACE

INTRODUCTION
There is little need for another statistics book. The equations for the standard error and linear
regression have not changed. The mathematics of introductory statistics can be found in hun-
dreds of other texts. What are needed are texts that take students and practitioners through step-
by-step procedures for hands-on analysis of social science data. Although the equations of basic
statistics do not change, the software researchers use does and new techniques are consistently
being developed.
Students in social science are continually faced with quantitative data that they must analyse.
One reason students typically choose to study social sciences at university is that they were
not good at mathematics in secondary school. If you were good at mathematics and wanted to
work with data, you probably would be studying statistics or a similar subject. Here’s the thing,
though: data analysis really does not require mathematics. It requires an interest in using quantita-
tive data to make sense of the world around you. It may be a different way of thinking about the
world, but it is not scary or foreign. I use myself as an example of learning quantitative social
science (QSS). I have taught undergraduate and graduate quantitative methods (QM) for over a
decade, have published QM articles, and now I am writing a QM book. However, as an under-
graduate I studied political science, history, and medieval studies. To be sure, studying Dante and
Cicero did not prepare me for writing R code and running regression models.
This leads me to a common question on the minds of QSS undergraduates: how is what I am
doing different from my friends studying statistics? In reality, it is not. The difference is that you
are working with social science data and not trying to compare samples of the widths of fruit fly
wings. And, particularly unlike econometrics, you are not getting bogged down with the math-
ematics behind statistics. Greek letters and equations do exist in this book, but they should not
be viewed as scary or intimidating. They should be thought of as symbolic representations of
ideas and concepts. Just as the Union Jack represents the nations of England, Scotland, Wales,
and Northern Ireland or the 50 stars on the American flag represents the 50 states of the USA, we
use, for example, the Greek letter 1 to represent the average and the Greek letter B to represent a
regression coefficient. We use symbols and equations to represent and convey sometimes com-
plicated ideas in a small amount of space.
Students also often ask, ‘why would an employer hire me over someone with a statistics
degree?’ The difference between QSS and statistics is that you learn to interpret and discuss
statistical results in a way the average person can understand. You know the social science
theory and context, and you can make sense of the data analysis and communicate it to
others. Statistics undergraduates are taught the methods with less attention to the substance.
 PREFACE ° vii

QSS students know why certain variables exist in models and the broader societal, political,
economic, etc. implications of the results. For statistics students, data is data is data. This is
not to put down statisticians — I am statistician-jealous — but QSS teaches you how to bring
the context to the data.

SO WHY THIS BOOK AND WHY NOW?

As a lecturer in the team of the University of Glasgow Q-Step programme, we were faced with
two major challenges in identifying appropriate and useful texts for our courses. The first was a
lack of undergraduate QSS books that use the statistical software program R. We chose R for our
programme mainly because it is free, but also because you can do almost any type of statistical
analysis in R. R allows one to do anything from the simplest statistics to the most cutting-edge
statistical methods. Therefore, students can learn and become comfortable with one statistical
software program and environment, and do not need to learn different programs to perform
different statistical techniques. However, R is not the most user-friendly software. That is why
hands-on, step-by-step undergraduate R books are critical. Thankfully, QSS books that use R are
increasingly coming onto the market, making learning R easier for students (e.g. Imai, 2017;
Monogan, 2015).
However, the second and more fundamental problem was that QSS books, including those
that use R, are usually pigeon-holed or siloed into specific disciplines. Monogan’s (2015)
book, Political Analysis Using R, is phenomenal but obviously only uses political science exam-
ples. Frequently, quantitative methods courses in the social sciences include undergraduates
from different social science subjects; this is the case with Glasgow’s Q-Step programme. So,
although students may find books like Monogan’s useful for learning R, they might prefer
data examples from across the social sciences and not from just one discipline. Siloing makes
sense as you are taught how scholars in your discipline think about the world. Political sci-
entists, sociologists, economists, etc. all have certain worldviews and approaches to research.
However, to fully understand the world around you, you need to become a social scientist
and utilise theories, data, statistical techniques, etc. from all relevant disciplines. This book
is an attempt to create a truly multidisplinary/interdisciplinary QSS undergraduate textbook.
Hopefully this approach will appeal to you and help make learning data analysis easier and
more interesting.

WHAT DOES THIS BOOK COVER?

This book walks you step by step through how we have developed our first-year undergraduate
programme in Glasgow's Q-Step; note that our students are actually in their second year of uni-
versity when they begin our programme. The book does not cover everything, but what we have
found most useful and important for QSS students. No QSS book will cover everything, and if one
were to try to do so it would be thousands of pages long.
An important aspect of the book is that it takes you through all the material in R. We get into the
nitty-gritty of R, and I have tried to anticipate many of the ‘why’ questions students might have.
The associated website for the book has how-to videos of doing data analysis in R. They include
vill Oo PREFACE

common errors and mistakes — what students often run into when learning data analysis in R.
Data analysis is not perfect — it is messy, dirty, at times frustrating. And so only giving you perfect
blocks of R code would be dishonest to the practice of data analysis. To this end, I have left in all
the warnings, messages, and other stuff that R is likely to spit out at you.

A FINAL WORD
Every statistics, data analysis, QSS, QM, etc. book is idiosyncratic to the author(s). No one book
can do everything, and lecturers and professors will always have different views on what to
include and how it should be taught. I have never found a perfect QSS book and I do not pretend
this is one either. This book is what I think first-year QSS students should know as producers and
consumers of data analysis. | hope you have fun and that the experience motivates you to further
study QSS.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
There are a slew of people to thank and acknowledge for making this book a reality. Most obvious
are the great staff at Sage, and particularly Jai Seaman who was willing to take a chance on this
Q-Step lecturer. Jai’s assistants, Alysha Owen and Shelley de Jong. I also want to thank the gaggle
of reviewers who offered helpful, if not sometimes cutting, feedback and comments through the
life cycle of this book. Their comments help round the rough edges and help me focus on what
matters for students.
I want to acknowledge the professors who influenced me to make learning fun and were willing
to turn potentially dry, boring university courses and degrees into magical experiences. First,
Bill Cook and Ron Herzman, whose medieval studies courses came alive, and Joe McCartin, who
influenced me to simply be honest and humble as a lecturer. Jeffrey Koch, who helped me realise
the dream of going to graduate school for political science. George Rabinowitz, who first intro-
duced me to QSS with the comment when we first met ‘so, you like math’; even though I didn’t.
Marco Steenbergen, who taught our introductory statistics courses at UNC and is one of the most
approachable methodologists I've met. Andrew Gelman, whose multilevel modelling course at
Columbia showed me that statistics and data analysis can be fun and quirkiness in lecturers is a
valuable commodity.
I want to thank the numerous students, on both sides of the Atlantic, who were subjected
to numerous versions of the materials included in this book. In particular, the Q-Step stu-
dents at Glasgow where this book was first trialled over the past couple of years. I want to
thank the students through the years who always asked the tough questions and were never
satisfied with the simple ‘because’ answer. These are the students that make you honest and
better at your job.
I want to acknowledge all the colleagues through the years who have shaped my understanding
of QSS. Jamie Monogan, Luke Keele, Jeff Gill, Marco Steenbergen, David Kimball, Brady Baybeck,
Patrick Wohlfarth, John Patty, Mike MacKuen, Jim Stimson, Andrew Gelman, Mike Ting, Jenny
 PREFACE O° ix

Wolak, Fred Boehmke, Bill Jacoby, Arthur Lupia, John Aldrich, and the Glasgow Q-Step team
have all assisted in this journey.
Finally, I want to acknowledge my wife, kids, parents, and in-laws for allowing me the space and
time to start and ultimately finish this book.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Brian J. Fogarty is a Lecturer in Quantitative Social Science in

the Q-Step Programme at the University of Glasgow. He has taught
undergraduate and graduate quantitative methods courses in political
and social science for over a decade at universities in the UK and US.
Brian’s research and teaching interests include political communica-
tion, quantitative methodology, and voting and elections.
 ONLINE RESOURCES

Quantitative Social Science Data with R: An Introduction is supported by a wealth of online resources
for both students and lecturers to aid studying and support teaching, which are available at
[Link]

For students

Introduction videos from author Brian End of chapter R exercises help you test
Fogarty offer you the chance to get to grips your understanding of topics and identify
with key themes and ideas within quantita- areas where you might need extra support.
tive social science.
Multidisciplinary case studies from the SAGE
Large and small datasets give you the Research Methods platform give you the chance
opportunity to put theory into practice with to broaden your knowledge of the subject area.
hands-on experience of using R software on
Links to a carefully curated collection of
real data.
YouTube videos provide a host of addi-
R screencast tutorials show you first- tional sources for you to develop your ability
hand how to use the software and enable to use R software.
you to increase your confidence at your own
Glossary flashcards allow you to test and
pace.
review your knowledge of key terms,
For lecturers
PowerPoint slides with key topics, tables Real datasets give students the chance to
and figures from the book are available to practice skills they need to master when deal-
download for you to customise and use in ing with quantitative social science data.
your own teaching. Links to case studies from the SAGE Research
Videos from author Brian Fogarty offer advice Methods platform equip you with additional
on teaching quantitative social science. examples for illustrating how quantitative
skills are used in real research.
R exercises related to the topic of each
chapter can be downloaded and used in
class or as set questions to test students’
understanding.
Chapter Contents
Layout of this Book
R Packages
Additional Resources
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