Unit 2: Theoretical Structure of Quantum Information Systems

What is a qubit? Conceptual understanding using spin and polarization, Comparison: classical
bits vs quantum bits, Quantum systems: trapped ions, superconducting circuits, photons (non
engineering view), Quantum coherence and decoherence - intuitive explanation, Theoretical
concepts: Hilbert spaces, quantum states, operators - only interpreted in abstract, The role of
entanglement and non-locality in systems, Quantum information vs classical information:
principles and differences, Philosophical implications: randomness, determinism, and observer
role.
What is a qubit:
A qubit, short for quantum bit, is the basic unit of information in quantum computing,
analogous to a bit in classical computing. Unlike a bit, which can only be 0 or 1, a qubit can
exist in a superposition of both states 0 and 1 simultaneously, until measured.
To understand the concept of a qubit, one must first grasp the essence of quantum computing.
Unlike classical computers, which operate based on binary bits (0 or 1) units of information
to process data, whereas quantum computers utilize the peculiar phenomena of superposition
and entanglement to process data in a fundamentally different manner with 0 and 1.

This superposition, along with other quantum phenomena like entanglement, allows
quantum computers to perform calculations in ways that classical computers cannot.

Qubits are represented by a superposition of multiple possible states

A qubit uses the quantum mechanical phenomena of superposition to achieve a linear

combination of two states. A classical binary bit can only represent a single binary value, such
as 0 or 1, meaning that it can only be in one of two possible states. A qubit, however, can
represent a0, a1, or any proportion of 0 and 1 in superposition of both states, with a certain
probability of being a0 and a certain probability of being a1.

Representation of Qubits
A single Qubit

0 1
2
0 i 1
2

TWO qubit System

A two-qubit system combines the quantum states of two qubits into a single quantum state,
representing all possible combinations of the individual qubit states. This system lives in a 4-
dimensional Hilbert space
Three Qubit System

Superposition gives quantum computers superior computing power

Superposition allows quantum algorithms to process information in a fraction of
the time it would take even the fastest classical systems to solve certain problems.
 The amount of information a qubit system can represent grows exponentially.
Information that 500 qubits can easily represent would not be possible with even more
than 2^500 classical bits.
 It would take a classical computer millions of years to find the prime factors of a 2,048-
bit number. Qubits could perform the calculation in just minutes.
Types of Qubits:
Qubits manifest in various physical forms, each harnessing distinct properties and
mechanisms to encode and manipulate quantum information. Some of the most
prominent types of qubits are:
Superconducting Qubits
When cooled to a low temperature, some materials allow an electrical current to flow
with no resistance. These are called superconductors. Electrical circuits designed based
on superconductors can behave like qubits.
Superconducting qubits comprise tiny circuits fabricated from superconducting
materials, such as niobium. These qubits exploit the quantized energy levels of
superconducting circuits to encode and process quantum information, making them a
leading candidate for building scalable quantum processors.
Trapped Ion Qubits
One can use the energy levels of electrons in neutral atoms or ions as qubits. In their
natural state, these electrons occupy the lowest possible energy levels. Using lasers,
they can be “excited” to a higher energy level. Qubit values can be assigned based on
their energy state.
Individual ions are typically of elements like ytterbium or calcium. Manipulating the
internal states of these ions (through laser-induced transitions) enables precise control
over quantum information, offering exceptional coherence times and fidelity crucial for
quantum computations.
Spin Qubits
Most quantum particles behave like little magnets. This property is called spin. The
spin orientation is always pointing either fully up or fully down but never in between.
Using the spin states of up and down, a spin qubit is built.
Spin qubits capitalise on the intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of particles, such as
electrons or atomic nuclei, as the basis for encoding quantum information. In
semiconductor quantum dots or defect centres within crystals, the spin states of these
particles serve as qubit carriers, governed by external magnetic and electric fields.
Photon Qubits
Photonic qubits exploit the quantum properties of photons, the fundamental particles of
light, to encode and process information. Through techniques like linear optics and
nonlinear processes, photons can be entangled and manipulated, laying the groundwork
for applications in quantum communication and quantum cryptography.
Photon qubits can be Polarisation Qubit, Path Qubit, or Time Qubit.
Topological Qubits
Theoretical in nature, topological qubits rely on exotic states of matter, such as
topological superconductors or Majorana fermions, to encode and protect quantum
information from decoherence—a pervasive challenge in quantum computing. While
still in the nascent stages of exploration, topological qubits hold promise for realising
fault-tolerant quantum computation.
Underlying Potential of Qubits
 As the pursuit of quantum supremacy accelerates, fuelled by breakthroughs in qubit
technology and quantum algorithms, the transformative impact of quantum computing
on diverse fields looms on the horizon. From optimising complex problems and
simulating quantum systems to revolutionising cryptography and drug discovery, the
capabilities of quantum computers herald a new era of innovation and discovery.
However, amidst the promise lies the task of surmounting challenges, including
decoherence, error correction, and scalability, which stand as barriers to realising the
full potential of quantum computing. Addressing these hurdles demands
interdisciplinary collaboration and perseverance to unlock the transformative power of
qubits and pave the way towards a quantum future.
Conceptual understanding using spin and polarization:
In quantum mechanics, spin and polarization are related but distinct concepts. Spin is
an intrinsic angular momentum of particles, while polarization describes the orientation of a
wave's oscillations, particularly in the context of electromagnetic radiation like light. For
photons, spin is related to helicity (left-handed or right-handed circular polarization).
Spin:
 Intrinsic Property: Spin is an intrinsic property of particles, like electrons and
photons, meaning it's not due to the particle's motion through space, but rather an
inherent quantum mechanical property.
 Angular Momentum: Spin is analogous to angular momentum in classical physics,
but it's quantized, meaning it can only take on specific discrete values.
 Spin-up and Spin-down: For example, electrons have a spin of 1/2, and their spin can
be either "spin-up" or "spin-down" along a chosen axis, like a magnetic field.
 Not Actual Rotation: It's important to note that spin isn't a literal spinning motion of
the particle; it's an abstract quantum property.
Polarization:
 Orientation of Oscillations: Polarization describes the direction of the electric field
vector of an electromagnetic wave, like light.
 Linear and Circular Polarization: Light can be linearly polarized (electric field
oscillates along a line) or circularly polarized (electric field rotates as it propagates).
 Photon Spin and Polarization: For photons, the polarization is directly related to their
spin. Left-handed circularly polarized light corresponds to a photon with spin +1, and
right-handed circularly polarized light corresponds to a photon with spin -1.
  Quantum Mechanical Description: Even at the single-photon level, polarization is a
quantum mechanical property. Each photon can be in a superposition of polarization
states, meaning it can be in a combination of different polarization directions
simultaneously.
Connection between Spin and Polarization:
Photon Polarization as a Manifestation of Spin: For photons, the polarization of light is a direct
consequence of their spin.
Helicity: The handedness of circular polarization (left or right) is directly related to the
photon's helicity, which is the projection of its spin onto its direction of motion.
Factors Affecting Spin Polarization: 1. Magnetic fields: External magnetic fields can
influence the spin orientation of electrons.
2.Interactions within materials: Interactions between electrons and the material's structure or
other electrons can also lead to spin polarization.
3.Surface effects: The surface of a material can play a significant role in determining spin
polarization, especially in materials science and nanotechnology.
Applications: Spintronics: Spin polarization is fundamental to spintronics, a field that
utilizes electron spin to store, process, and transmit information.
Comparison: classical bits vs quantum bits
Classical bits and quantum bits (qubits) are the fundamental units of information in
classical and quantum computing, respectively, but they differ significantly in how they store
and process information. Classical bits can only represent a 0 or a 1, while qubits can exist in
a superposition of both 0 and 1 simultaneously, or any proportion of the two.
CLASSICAL BITS QUANTUM BITS
The device computes by manipulating those
The device computes by manipulating those
bits with the help of logical gates (AND, OR,
bits with the help of quantum logic gates.
NOT).
A classical computer has a memory made up
A qubit (quantum bits) can hold a one, a zero
of bits where each bit holds either a one or
or crucially a superposition of these.
zero.
Qubits (Quantum bits) are use in quantum
Bits are used in classical computers.
computer
 Information is stored in quantum bits, or
qubits. A qubit can be in states labelled |0} and
|1}, but it can also be in a superposition of
Information is stored in bits, which take the
these states, a|0} + b|1}, where a and b are
discrete values 0 and 1.
complex numbers. If we think of the state of a
qubit as a vector, then superposition of states
is just vector addition.
For example, for every extra qubit you get, you
For example, if storing one number takes 64 can store twice as many numbers. For
bits, then storing N numbers takes N times 64 example, with 3 qubits, you get coefficients for
bits. |000}, |001}, |010}, |011}, |100}, |101}, |110}
and |111}.
Bits are slow. Qubits are faster.
Its circuit behaviour based on classical Its circuit behaviour based on quantum
physics. mechanics.

Quantum systems: trapped ions, superconducting circuits, photons:

Quantum systems, such as trapped ions, superconducting circuits, and photons, are used
as building blocks for quantum computers. These systems leverage quantum phenomena like
superposition and entanglement to perform calculations that are beyond the reach of classical
computers.
Trapped Ions:
 Ions (atoms with an electric charge) are trapped and controlled using electromagnetic
fields.
 They are cooled to extremely low temperatures and their quantum states are
manipulated using lasers.
 Trapped ions offer long coherence times (the duration they maintain quantum
properties) and high-fidelity measurements, making them suitable for complex
computations.
 However, they can be slower than other qubit types and scaling up the number of qubits
is challenging.
Superconducting Circuits:
  These systems use superconducting materials cooled to near absolute zero to create
qubits.
 Qubits are manipulated with microwave pulses and are favoured for their speed in
performing computations.
 Superconducting circuits are relatively advanced in terms of scalability and control,
making them a leading platform for quantum computing.
 However, they require extremely low temperatures, which adds to the complexity of
building and operating quantum computers.
Photons:
In non-technical terms, a photon is essentially a tiny "packet" or particle of light and other
forms of electromagnetic radiation. It's a fundamental building block of light, carrying energy
and momentum, and exhibiting both wave-like and particle-like properties. Think of it as the
smallest possible "bit" of light that still behaves like light.
 Photons, or light particles, can be used to encode quantum information.
 They can be easily generated and routed through optical fibres, making them ideal for
quantum communication and cryptography.
 Photonic systems can operate at room temperature, reducing the need for cryogenics.
 However, they face challenges in creating and controlling interactions between qubits,
which is crucial for universal quantum computation.
In summary, each of these platforms offers unique advantages and disadvantages for
building quantum computers. Trapped ions provide stability and accuracy, superconducting
circuits offer speed and control, and photons enable room-temperature operation and long-
distance communication. The field of quantum computing is actively exploring these platforms
to find the best combination of features for building powerful and scalable quantum machines.
Quantum coherence and decoherence - intuitive explanation:
Quantum coherence describes a system's ability to maintain relationships between its
different quantum states, allowing for phenomena like superposition and entanglement.
Decoherence, conversely, is the loss of this coherence due to interactions with the environment,
causing the system to behave more classically. Imagine a coin spinning in the air: it's neither
heads nor tails, but a combination of both (coherence). If it lands on the table, it settles into
either heads or tails (decoherence).
Quantum Coherence:
 Superposition: A quantum system can exist in multiple states simultaneously. For
example, an electron can be in a superposition of being in multiple locations at once.
 Entanglement: Two or more quantum systems can become linked in such a way that
they share the same fate, even when separated by large distances.
 Maintaining Relationships: In a coherent state, the relationships between these
different states are well-defined and maintained. This allows for quantum phenomena
like interference and entanglement to occur, which are crucial for quantum computation
and other applications.
 Analogy: A well-tuned musical orchestra, where each instrument plays in perfect
harmony, creating a beautiful and predictable sound, can be an analogy for quantum
coherence.
Quantum Decoherence:
 Environmental Interactions: Quantum systems are rarely perfectly isolated. They
constantly interact with their surroundings, which can disrupt the delicate relationships
between their quantum states.
 Loss of Superposition and Entanglement: These interactions cause the system to lose
its superposition and entanglement, effectively collapsing the system into a single,
classical state.
 Analogy: Imagine the musical orchestra from above being exposed to loud and
unpredictable noise. The instruments will no longer play in harmony, and the beautiful
sound will be disrupted (decoherence).
Theoretical concepts: Hilbert spaces, quantum states, operators - only
interpreted in abstract
Hilbert Space (ℋ):
An infinite-dimensional vector space equipped with an inner product, complete under the
norm induced by that inner product.

 Think of it as the arena of all possible states in a quantum system—purely abstract,

like the set of all meaningful vectors in a vector field that supports convergence and
orthogonality.
 It allows operations like projection, superposition, and unitary transformations in
a rigorously defined mathematical space.
 Completeness means every Cauchy sequence converges—important for ensuring no
limit points “escape” the space.

Quantum State (|ψ⟩ ∈ ℋ):

A unit vector in the Hilbert space, abstractly representing a configuration of potentialities,

not outcomes.

 Not a thing, but a mathematical entity encoding information.

 It’s defined up to a global phase: ∣ψ⟩∼eiθ∣ψ⟩|\psi\rangle \sim
e^{i\theta}|\psi\rangle∣ψ⟩∼eiθ∣ψ⟩.
 Superposition: a state is a linear combination of basis vectors, reflecting structural
combinations within the vector space.

Operator (Ô: ℋ → ℋ):

A function mapping vectors to vectors within the Hilbert space, usually linear, sometimes
bounded, and often possessing specific algebraic properties.

 Hermitian operators: abstract generators of structure; they have real eigenvalues and
orthonormal eigenvectors, forming spectral decompositions.
 Unitary operators: preserve inner product and norm, thus preserving the geometry of
the space.
  Operators represent symmetries, transformations, and structure in the space—not
physical observables per se in this view.

In Summary (Abstract View):

 Hilbert space: abstract geometry of possibility.

 Quantum state: structured, norm-1 element inside that geometry.
 Operator: mapping or structure-preserving transformation on those elements.

This perspective is purely mathematical, independent of physical measurement or

interpretation—it sees quantum theory as a kind of functional analysis on complex vector
spaces.

The Role of Entanglement and Non-Locality in Quantum Systems

Entanglement and non-locality are not just abstract curiosities; they are fundamental
resources that enable the unique capabilities of quantum technologies and offer profound
insights into the nature of reality:

1. Quantum Computing:
o Exponential Speedup: Entanglement allows quantum computers to perform
operations on multiple qubits simultaneously. A system of N entangled qubits
can exist in a superposition of 2N states. Quantum gates manipulate these
entangled states, effectively performing computations on all 2 N possibilities at
once. This "quantum parallelism" is the core reason for the potential
exponential speedup of quantum algorithms (like Shor's algorithm for
factoring large numbers or Grover's algorithm for searching databases) over
classical ones.
o Complex Problem Solving: Many of the hardest computational problems
involve exploring vast solution spaces. Entanglement enables quantum
computers to navigate these spaces much more efficiently by establishing
complex correlations that classical machines cannot replicate.
2. Quantum Communication (Quantum Key Distribution - QKD):
o Unbreakable Security: Non-locality, stemming from entanglement, is the
bedrock of secure quantum communication. In QKD protocols (like BB84),
two parties (Alice and Bob) share entangled photons. If an eavesdropper (Eve)
attempts to intercept or measure these photons, the act of measurement
inevitably disturbs the entangled state, destroying the correlation. This
disturbance is detectable by Alice and Bob, immediately alerting them to the
presence of an eavesdropper. This provides a theoretically "eavesdrop-proof"
method for generating cryptographic keys.
3. Quantum Teleportation:
o Information Transfer: Quantum teleportation, while not moving matter,
allows for the transfer of a quantum state (information) from one location to
another, utilizing entanglement and classical communication. It relies on the
 non-local correlation: measuring a qubit in one location instantly prepares the
entangled partner in the corresponding state at a distant location. This is
crucial for building a quantum internet, where quantum information needs to
be transmitted between nodes without physically moving the qubits
themselves.
4. Quantum Sensing and Metrology:
o Enhanced Precision: Entanglement can improve the precision of
measurements beyond what's classically possible. Entangled particles can act
as a single, highly sensitive unit, allowing for more accurate detection of small
changes in magnetic fields, gravity, or time. This has applications in fields like
medical imaging, navigation, and fundamental physics experiments.
5. Fundamental Physics and Our Understanding of Reality:
o Challenging Classical Views: The experimental verification of non-locality
fundamentally challenged the classical deterministic and local view of the
universe. It forced physicists to reconsider basic concepts like realism,
causality, and the nature of information.
o Interconnectedness: Entanglement suggests a deeper interconnectedness in
the universe than classical physics ever envisioned. Particles, once entangled,
remain linked in a profound way, hinting at a reality where relationships are as
fundamental as individual properties.

Quantum information vs classical information: principles and differences

Feature Classical Information Quantum Information

Unit Bit (0 or 1) Qubit (superposition of 0 and 1)

Storage Definite state Probabilistic, described by

wavefunction

Superposition Not allowed Allowed — multiple states at

once

Entanglement Impossible Possible — core feature

Measurement Non-destructive Collapses the quantum state

Cloning Perfect copying allowed No cloning theorem forbids it

Error Bit-flip or redundancy codes Uses entanglement and

correction syndrome decoding

Processing Deterministic logic gates Probabilistic quantum gates

Communication Bits via channels Qubits, teleportation, quantum

key distribution
Feature Classical Information Quantum Information

Examples Switches (on/off), Electron spin (spin up/spin

Light bulbs (on/off), down), Photon polarization
Electrical voltages (high/low), (vertical/horizontal),
Magnetization directions Energy levels of atoms or ions
(north/south) in hard drives. (ground state/excited state).

Philosophical implications: randomness, determinism, and

observer role.
Quantum mechanics has profound philosophical implications that challenge our intuitive,
classical understanding of the universe. The concepts of randomness, determinism, and the
observer's role are at the heart of these challenges, leading to ongoing debates and multiple
"interpretations" of quantum mechanics.

1. Randomness: Intrinsic vs. Epistemic

Classical Randomness (Epistemic): In classical physics, randomness is typically understood

as epistemic – it arises from our ignorance of the precise initial conditions or uncontrollable
complexity. If we knew every variable with perfect precision (e.g., the exact force, angle, and
air currents when flipping a coin), we could, in principle, predict the outcome
deterministically. The randomness is a reflection of our limited knowledge, not an inherent
property of nature.

Quantum Randomness (Ontological): Quantum mechanics introduces a more radical form

of randomness, often described as ontological or intrinsic. When a quantum system in a
superposition is measured, the outcome appears to be fundamentally random, not merely due
to our lack of information.

 Irreducible Uncertainty: The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle states that certain

pairs of properties (like position and momentum) cannot be known with arbitrary
precision simultaneously. This isn't about our clumsy measurement devices; it's a
fundamental limit on how precisely these properties can exist together in nature.
 Measurement Problem: The "collapse" of a quantum state upon measurement is
where this randomness truly manifests. Before measurement, a particle might be in a
superposition of multiple states. Upon measurement, it randomly "chooses" one
definite state with a probability governed by Born's rule. This process is not,
according to the standard (Copenhagen) interpretation, deterministic. There's no
hidden variable or mechanism that pre-determines the outcome.

Philosophical Implication: Does genuine randomness exist in the universe? If so, it

challenges the long-held philosophical notion of determinism, suggesting that the future is
not entirely predetermined by the past. This has implications for concepts like free will. If
even the most fundamental events are truly random, where does human agency fit in?

2. Determinism

Classical Determinism: Classical physics, particularly Newtonian mechanics, painted a

picture of a deterministic universe. Given the precise state of all particles and forces at one
moment in time, the future (and the past) of the universe could, in principle, be perfectly
calculated. This implied a "clockwork universe" where everything was predetermined.

Quantum Indeterminism (or a Different Kind of Determinism): Quantum mechanics

fundamentally disrupts classical determinism.

 Probabilistic Predictions: The Schrödinger equation, which governs the evolution of

quantum states between measurements, is deterministic. If you know the initial wave
function, you can deterministically predict how it will evolve. However, what it
predicts is the evolution of probabilities, not definite outcomes.
 Measurement Indeterminism: As discussed, the act of measurement introduces
genuine, irreducible randomness. The specific outcome of a measurement cannot be
predicted with certainty, only its probability. This is often seen as the source of true
indeterminism in the quantum realm.

Philosophical Implications:

 Loss of Predictability: For individual quantum events, perfect prediction is

impossible. This shifts our understanding of scientific prediction from certainty to
probability.
 "God Does Not Play Dice": Einstein famously resisted this inherent randomness,
seeking a more complete, deterministic theory with "hidden variables." However,
experiments based on Bell's Theorem have largely ruled out local hidden variable
theories, reinforcing the idea that quantum randomness is fundamental.
 Interpretations and Determinism: Some interpretations of quantum mechanics, like
the Many-Worlds Interpretation (MWI), attempt to restore determinism by
proposing that all possible outcomes of a quantum measurement actually occur, each
in a separate, branching universe. In MWI, there is no "collapse," only a continuous,
deterministic evolution of the universal wave function. From this perspective, the
appearance of randomness is merely our subjective experience of being in one
particular branch.

3. The Observer Role

The "observer" in quantum mechanics refers to the act of measurement or interaction that
causes a quantum system's wave function to collapse from a superposition of possibilities into
a single, definite state. This is one of the most contentious and philosophically loaded aspects
of quantum mechanics.

The "Problem": In classical physics, an observation is passive; it doesn't fundamentally

alter the system being observed. In quantum mechanics, measurement is an active process
that intrinsically interacts with the system, leading to the collapse. The philosophical debate
centers on:
  What constitutes an "observer" or "measurement apparatus"? Does it need to be
a conscious being, or can it be any macroscopic interaction, or even another quantum
particle?
 Does consciousness play a special role? Early interpretations, particularly some
radical interpretations of the Copenhagen school, sometimes suggested that
consciousness was necessary for collapse. This idea has largely been abandoned by
mainstream physicists, who generally view "measurement" as any irreversible
interaction that amplifies a quantum state to a classical record.
 The Measurement Problem: This is the unresolved puzzle of precisely how and
when the wave function collapses. The Schrödinger equation perfectly describes the
evolution of a quantum system in superposition, but it doesn't contain a mechanism
for the collapse itself.

Philosophical Implications:

 Subjectivity vs. Objectivity: Does reality depend, in some sense, on being observed?
If the unobserved quantum world exists only as probabilities and superpositions, does
it become "real" only when interacted with by a measurement device? This challenges
the idea of an objective, observer-independent reality.
 The Hard Problem of Consciousness: Some thinkers try to link the observer role in
quantum mechanics to the hard problem of consciousness, suggesting that
consciousness might be fundamental to reality or that quantum processes in the brain
might play a role in conscious experience (though this is highly speculative and not
widely accepted in physics).
 Beyond the "Observer": Modern interpretations often try to remove the
anthropocentric focus on a "conscious observer."
o Decoherence: This theory suggests that it's the interaction of a quantum
system with its environment (which acts as an "uncontrolled measurement
apparatus") that causes the apparent collapse, effectively "selecting" a classical
state. The environment itself acts as the "observer."
o Many-Worlds Interpretation: As mentioned, MWI posits no collapse, so
there's no special role for an observer in causing it. The observer simply
becomes entangled with the system and experiences one branch of a
continuously evolving, deterministic universe.
o Pilot-Wave Theory (Bohmian Mechanics): This interpretation is fully
deterministic and introduces "hidden variables" (the pilot wave) that guide
particles, avoiding the need for collapse altogether. It's non-local, but
deterministic.