STRESS ANALYSIS LAB

LAB MANUAL

Department of Civil Engineering

National Institute of Technology

NIT Campus P.O., Kozhikode-673601, Kerala, India
 INDEX
Sl Page Faculty
Date Name of Experiment Marks
No. No. Signature
Department of Civil Engineering National Institute of Technology Calicut

EXPERIMENT 1
EXPOSURE ON DIFFERENT LOADING SYSTEMS AND FORCE
MEASURING DEVICES AND ITS DEMONSTRATION

AIM
To understand different loading systems and force measuring devices.

INTRODUCTION
Structure analysis is an essential part of the design of buildings and other built such as
bridges and tunnels, as structural loads can cause stresses, deformation, and displacement,
which may result in structural problems, even failure. There are different types of load that
can act upon a structure, the nature of which will vary according to the design, the location of
the use, and the materials being used. In our structural engineering laboratory, we will be
giving force to structures or a component of a structure in two ways, namely - Load
controlled force and Displacement controlled force. Only providing the load is just half of the
experiment, measuring the forces and noting how the structures are behaving under load
conditions is also important. There are many types of force measuring devices and these may
be used with instrumentation of varying complexity. In designing or specifying a force
measuring system, for an application, it is useful to understand the basic operation of the
device to be used. When we are performing a scientific experiment or a test, we are usually
studying a system of cause, and effect. We are interested in the effect of varying one variable
on another. What we vary or control is called an independent variable. What we are
measuring is the dependent variable.

a) Load controlled test: In a load control test the load is being controlled for applying
different forces in the given sample, the load is the independent variable.

b) Displacement controlled test: The displacement is the independent variable and load
varied using displacement control technique.

DIFFERENT FORCE MEASURING DEVICES

a) Universal testing machine:

A Universal Testing Machine, also known as a universal tester, material testing machine, or
material test frame, is used to test the tensile strength and compressive strength of materials.
An earlier name for tensile testing machine is tensometer. The universal part of the name

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reflects that it can be performed many standard tensile tests and compressive tests on
materials and components of structures.

Some common component of the machine is load frame, load cell, crosshead, output device,
conditioning, text fixtures, specimen holding jaws, and related sample making equipments.

The specimen is placed in the machine in between the grips and extensometer, if required can
automatically record the change of gauge length during the test. If an extensometer is not
present the machine can itself record the displacement between the crossheads on which the
specimen is held. However, this method not only records the change in length of the
specimen, but also all other extending/elastic components of the testing machine and its drive
systems including any slipping of the specimen in the grip.

The UTM present in the lab is of capacity 1000 kN.

b) Microprocessor Controlled Universal Testing Machine:

It is designed for testing metals and other materials under tension, compression, bending,
transverse, and shear loading. Operation of the machine is by hydraulic transmission of load
from the test specimen to a separately housed electronic readout system. Load is applied by a
hydrostatically lubricated ram. Main cylinder pressure is transmitted through a highly
sensitive and precision pressure sensor, which in turn transmits the load to the Digital
Indicator Unit.

The microprocessor-controlled UTM present in the lab is of capacity 150kN.

c) Compression and Flexural Testing Machine:

One of the most fundamental types of machines for material testing with their properties, like
tensile strength, elastic limit, and more compression tests are used to determine the material
behaviour under compression pressure loads. During the test, we measure different properties
of materials such as elastic limit, proportionality limit, yield point, yield strength etc. Testing
allows manufacturers to ensure about integrity and safety of materials, components, and
manufacturing process. The application can range from the strength of glass, to endurance
testing of concrete beam used in construction. Low tensile strength of materials to high
compressive strength and vice versa. Compression testing is often used in brittle materials
such as concrete, metals, plastics, ceramic composites, and corrugated metals like cardboard.

The CTM present in the lab is of capacity 3000 kN.

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d) Force Transducers:

The strain gauge load cells are the most common type of force transducer and one which is a
clear example of an elastic device. Each cell is based on an elastic element to which a number
of electrical resistance strain gauges are bonded. The geometric shape and modules of
elasticity of the element determine the magnitude of the strain field produced by the action of
force. Each strain gauge responds to the load strain at its location and the measurement of
force is determined from a combination of these individual measurements of strain. The
related capacity of strain gauge load cells typically ranges from 5N to more than 50 MNs.
They have become the most widespread of all force measurement transducers. They can be
used with high-resolution digital indicators as force transfer standards.

Some other force measuring devices used in structural engineering are:-

1) Piezoelectric crystal force transducers
2) Measuring force through pressure
a) Hydraulic load cell
b) Pneumatic load cell
3) Other types of force measuring systems
a) Elastic devices
b) Vibrating elements
c) Magneto elastic devices
d) Dynamic balance devices
e) Plastic deformation
APPLICATIONS
Force measurement systems are widely used in different industries, it is difficult for every
possible use to be desirable, so the applications listed are designed to give a representative
view of the types of applications that users of force measurement systems may encounter.
Frequent force measurement is a part of the safety system of the associated process and may
be part of the quality control of the base, intermediate, or end product. The measurement may
be destructive, such as material testing machine, checking material stress/strain
characteristics, or non-destructive such as checking machine or product performance.
CONCLUSION
Summarize the key findings and insights gained from the experiment.

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EXPERIMENT 2
STRAIN MEASURING TECHNIQUES FOR STRUCTURES

AIM
To get an understanding of various strain measuring devices used for structures and their
working principles.

THEORY
Strain is used to describe the measurement of deformation of a material. Strain is a non-
dimensional value that represents the change in length of a material relative to its initial
length. Since the change in length is usually very small, devices of very high sensitivity are
being used. There are different types of gauges and sensors that can be used to measure
strain. Strain gauges are most common devices. Strain Gauges can be electrical and
mechanical. ‘Strain rosette’ is also used for strain measurement.

Fig. 3.1 Strain gauge construction

MECHANICAL STRAIN GAUGES

This is used to measure strain in concrete specimens, rock strata, remote areas, and under
adverse conditions, using a single instrument. Different models are available with analog or
digital gauge 100, 200, and 300mm measuring lengths depending on the standard length to be
measured. The instrument can also be used for other structures like steel or wood. These
mechanical devices are generally known as extensometers and are used to measure strain
under static or gradually varying load condition.

Advantages:

 Self-contained magnification system

 No auxiliary equipment required

Disadvantages:
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 Owing to the high inertia of the gauge, it is unsuitable for dynamic measurement &
varying strain.
 Slow response and also non-availability of adequate surface area on the test specimen
& clearance above it to accommodate the gauge together with its mounting fixture.

ELECTRICAL STRAIN GAUGES

This is also known as an electrical resistance strain gauge. This strain gauge is a passive
transducer that converts a mechanical elongation or displacement produced due to a force
into the corresponding change in resistance (R) of electrical signal. A strain gauge is basically
used to measure the strain in a workpiece.

If a metal piece is subjected to tensile stress, the metal length will increase the electrical
resistance of the material. Similarly, if the metal is subjected to compressive stress, the length
will decrease but the width will increase.

The majority of strain gauges are of foil type; it is available in different shapes & sizes. They
consist of a pattern of resistance foil which is mounted on a backing material.

Advantage:

 The efficiency of the electrical strain gauge is higher than the mechanical strain
gauge.
 In the strain gauge, there is no moving part and it is small and very easy to handle.

Disadvantage:

 It is non-linear.
 It needs regular calibration in order to toss & take readings.

STRAIN ROSETTE

It can be defined as the arrangement of strain gauges in three arbitrary directions. These strain
gauges are used to measure strains along different direction of component under evaluation.
Depending on the arrangement of strain gauges, strain rosettes are classified in to:-

1) Rectangular strain gauge rosette

2) Delta strain gauge rosette
3) Star strain gauge rosette

APPARATUS

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1. Specimens of different materials (e.g., metal, plastic)

2. Strain gauges
3. Wheatstone bridge
4. Data acquisition system
5. Power supply
6. Strain measurement instrument (e.g., strain indicator)
7. Calipers or other measuring tools
8. Load application device (e.g., weights, hydraulic system)
9. Wiring and connectors
10. Multimeter
PROCEDURE

1. Preparation:

a. Ensure all equipment is set up properly and calibrated.

b. Select specimens of different materials for testing.

2. Mechanical Strain Measurement:

a. Affix the strain gauges to the surface of the specimen using an appropriate adhesive.

b. Connect the strain gauges to the Wheatstone bridge.

c. Set up the data acquisition system to record strain measurements.

d. Apply a known load to the specimen and record the corresponding strain readings.

e. Repeat the process for different loads and specimens.

3. Electrical Strain Measurement:

a. Attach strain gauges to a different set of specimens.

b. Connect the strain gauges to the Wheatstone bridge and data acquisition system.

c. Apply a known load to the specimen and record the strain readings.

d. Repeat the process for different loads and specimens.

4. Data Analysis:

a. Analyze the data obtained from both mechanical and electrical strain measurements.

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b. Compare the accuracy, sensitivity, and practicality of each method.

5. Discussion:

a. Discuss the advantages and limitations of mechanical and electrical strain measuring techniques.

b. Consider factors such as cost, ease of implementation, and accuracy.

c. Formulate conclusions based on the experimental results.

CONCLUSION

Summarize the key findings and insights gained from the experiment.

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EXPERIMENT 3
DEFLECTION MEASURING TECHNIQUES FOR STRUCTURES

AIM
To demonstrate and compare deflection measuring techniques, specifically using LVDT and
dial gauges, for evaluating structural deformations in materials.

THEORY
1. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT):

The LVDT is a type of position transducer widely used for measuring linear displacement. It
operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction. The device consists of a primary coil,
two secondary coils, and a movable core. When an AC voltage is applied to the primary coil,
it induces voltages in the secondary coils. The position of the movable core alters the
coupling between the coils, resulting in a differential output voltage that is proportional to the
core's displacement. LVDTs are known for their high accuracy, repeatability, and long-term
stability, making them suitable for precise measurements in various applications, including
structural deformation analysis, automation, and aerospace.

Fig. 4.1 LVDT Principle

2. Dial Gauge:

A dial gauge, also known as a dial indicator or clock gauge, is a mechanical instrument used
for measuring small linear displacements. It consists of a needle attached to a spindle that
moves in response to changes in position. The needle rotates around a graduated dial,

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providing a visual indication of the displacement. Dial gauges are often equipped with a
spring-loaded plunger or a lever arm to ensure consistent contact with the object being
measured. These gauges are portable, easy to use, and cost-effective, making them suitable
for a range of applications, including quality control, machine setup, and structural deflection
measurements. However, they may have limitations in terms of precision compared to more
sophisticated devices like LVDTs.

APPARATUS

1. Specimens of different materials (e.g., metal, wood)

2. LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)
3. Dial gauges with magnetic bases
4. Support stands
5. Load application device (e.g., weights, hydraulic system)
6. Calipers or other measuring tools
7. Data recording sheets
8. LVDT signal conditioning unit
9. Wiring and connectors
10. Multimeter
PROCEDURE

1. Preparation:

a. Set up the support stands on a stable surface.

b. Attach the specimens to the support stands securely.
c. Ensure the LVDT and dial gauges are properly calibrated.

2. LVDT Demonstration:

a. Place the LVDT in a suitable location on the specimen.

b. Connect the LVDT to the signal conditioning unit.
c. Set up the data recording system to monitor the LVDT output.
d. Apply a known load to the specimen and record the deflection measurements.
e. Adjust the load and record additional deflection readings.

3. Dial Gauge Demonstration:

a. Attach the dial gauge to another location on the specimen using the magnetic base.

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b. Ensure the dial gauge is positioned perpendicular to the expected deflection.

c. Record the initial reading on the dial gauge.
d. Apply a known load to the specimen and record the deflection indicated by the dial
gauge.
e. Adjust the load and record additional deflection readings.

4. Comparison:

a. Compare the deflection measurements obtained from the LVDT and dial gauge.
b. Discuss the sensitivity, precision, and ease of use of each technique.
c. Consider factors such as cost and practicality in different applications.

5. Data Analysis:

a. Analyze the data obtained from both LVDT and dial gauge measurements.
b. Calculate the deflection values and compare them to the applied loads.

6. Discussion:

a. Discuss the advantages and limitations of using LVDT and dial gauges for deflection
measurements.
b. Explore potential sources of error and ways to minimize them.
c. Consider the impact of specimen material and geometry on the measurements.

CONCLUSION

Summarize the key findings and insights gained from the demonstration of deflection
measuring techniques for structures, emphasizing the applicability and reliability of LVDT
and dial gauges in different scenarios.

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EXPERIMENT 4
LOADING ON STEEL BEAM AND STUDYING FAILURE MECHANISM OF
STEEL BEAM

AIM

To get an understanding of different failure mechanisms of steel beam and loading on steel
beam

THEORY

Steel is one of the most commonly used construction materials due to its wide availability
and good strength to weight ratio both in tension and compression. Steels’ flexibility and
versatility allows it to be used in many challenging structures that would be either difficult
or impossible to achieve with other common construction materials such as concrete.
In general steel structures require greater attention during both the design and construction
stages when compared to monolithic construction. Some of the basic failure mechanisms are
discussed below

1. YEILDING FAILURE
Yielding occurs when the stress in a steel beam reaches the yield strength of the material,
causing it to undergo plastic deformation. Unlike elastic deformation, where the material
returns to its original shape after the load is removed, plastic deformation results in
permanent shape changes. As the load on the beam increases, the stress in the beam also
increases. Initially, the beam deforms elastically, meaning it will return to its original shape
if the load is removed. However, once the yield point is reached, any additional load causes
plastic deformation. In a simply supported beam, this often manifests as the formation of
plastic hinges at locations of maximum moment, typically at the midspan or near the
supports. The beam can continue to carry load after yielding, but with increased
deformation, leading to significant deflection. Yielding failure is a ductile failure mode,
which means it provides warning before collapse through noticeable deflections. This
characteristic is desirable in structural design because it allows for redistribution of forces
and provides time for evacuation or repair.

2. LATERAL TORSIONAL BUCKLING

It is the deformation of an unrestrained beam due to the applied loads away from the
longitudinal axis – both lateral displacements and twisting occurs. Unrestrained steel beams
are those whose compression flange is free to move (or displace) in the lateral direction and
also rotate. If we apply this theory to a simply supported beam, then the compression flange
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is the top flange. As this flange deflects laterally the tension flange tries to keep the beam
straight and creates restoring forces due to lateral bending of the beam. However, these
forces above cannot keep the beam straight. The resistance of the beam to the lateral
torsional buckling is determined by the restoring forces and the lateral component of tensile
forces in the tension flange.

Fig 5.1 Lateral torsional buckling

3. LOCAL BUCKLING
Local buckling occurs when individual elements of a steel beam’s cross-section, such as the
flange or web, buckle independently of the overall structure. It is common in thin-walled
sections, where parts of the beam undergo wrinkling or buckling due to compressive
stresses. In steel beams, different parts of the cross-section are subjected to different stress
states (tension and compression). The flange or web, under compression, can buckle locally
if the compressive stress exceeds a critical level determined by the geometry and thickness
of the material. This local buckling reduces the effective cross-sectional area that can carry
the load, thus diminishing the beam's load-bearing capacity. For example, in an I-beam, the
top flange (which is in compression) might buckle locally while the rest of the beam remains
unaffected. Local buckling can significantly reduce the stiffness and load-carrying capacity
of a beam, potentially leading to overall structural failure if not accounted for. To prevent
local buckling, designers may increase the thickness of the beam elements or use stiffeners
to enhance stability.

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Due to localized compression, the thin and slender outstanding flange elements
localized out of this plane, buckling of these flange or web elements occur. This is
known as local buckling and it greatly reduces moment or axial load carrying
capacity of the beam section.

Fig 5.2 Local Buckling (a) Flange Local Buckling (b) Web local buckling

CONCLUSION

Summarize the insights on different failure mechanism of steel beam

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 EXPERIMENT 5
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING
STRUCTURES

AIM
To get an understanding of different non-destructive tests used in structural
engineering.

THEORY
Non-destructive testing is used to assess the concrete strength and durability of concrete structures
without any damage to the structure. In these methods of testing, without loading the specimen to
failure (i.e. without destructing the concrete) we can measure the strength and other properties of
the concrete. These tests provide immediate results and also helps us to investigate crack depth,
micor cracks and deterioration of concrete. The different types of NDTs that are explored in this
experiment are;

a. Rebound Hammer Test

b. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test
c. Impact Echo Test
d. Rebar Locator
e. Core Extraction for compressive strength Test

a) REBOUND HAMMER TEST

The rebound hammer method could be used for:
(i) assessing the likely compressive strength of concrete with the help of suitable
correlations between rebound index and compressive strength,
(ii) assessing the uniformity of concrete,
(iii) assessing the quality of the concrete in relation to standard requirements
(iv) assessing the quality of one element of concrete in relation to another.
Principle
When the plunger of the rebound hammer is pressed against the surface of the
concrete, the spring-controlled mass rebounds and the extent of such rebound
depends upon the surface hardness of the concrete. The surface hardness and
therefore the rebound is taken to be related to the compressive strength of the
concrete. The rebound is read off along a graduated scale and is designated as the
rebound number or rebound index.

Apparatus

It consists of a spring-controlled mass that slides on a plunger within a tubular

housing.
 Fig. 1.1: Rebound Hammer

Procedure

1. Checking of Apparatus

It is necessary that the rebound hammer is checked against the testing anvil before
the commencement of a test to ensure reliable results. The testing anvil should be
of steel having a Brinell hardness of about 5000 N/mm2. The supplier/manufacturer
of the rebound hammer should indicate the range of readings on the anvil suitable for
different types of rebound hammers.

2. Test Procedure

For testing, smooth, clean and dry surface is to be selected. If loosely adhering scale
is present, this should be rubbed of with a grinding wheel or stone. Rough surfaces
resulting from incomplete compaction, loss of grout, spalled or tooled surfaces do not
give reliable results and should be avoided.

The point of impact should be at least 20 mm away from any edge or shape
discontinuity. For taking a measurement, the rebound hammer should be held at right
angles to the surface of the concrete member. The test can thus be conducted
horizontally on vertical surfaces or vertically upwards or downwards on horizontal
surfaces. If the situation demands, the rebound hammer can be held at intermediate
angles also, but in each case, the rebound number will be different for the same
concrete. Rebound hammer test is conducted around all the points of observation on
all accessible faces of the structural element. Concrete surfaces are thoroughly
cleaned before taking any measurement. Around each point of observation, six
readings of rebound indices are taken and average of these readings after deleting
outliers as per IS:8900-1978 becomes the rebound index for the point of observation.
Department of Civil Engineering National Institute of Technology Calicut

b) ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY TEST

The ultrasonic Pulse Velocity test (UPV) is one of the popular methods which
are used to obtain information about the interior of a concrete structure with
two accessible surfaces (transducers). The most known instrument, which we
used in the lab, is the PUNDIT (Portable Ultrasonic Non- destructive Digital
Indicating Tester) this comes with two transducers and one calibration rod to
adjust the readings before any test.

Fig. 1.2: Portable Ultrasonic Non-destructive Digital Indicating Tester

(PUNDIT)

One of the important things in this test is having a good acoustic coupling
between the face of each transducer and the concrete surface by using a
medium such as grease, hand cream or jelly.

Transducer Arrangement:

There are three major ways through which the transducers may be arranged,
as shown in Fig. 1.3 below.
a) Opposite faces (direct method)
b) Adjacent faces (semi - direct method)
c) Same faces (indirect method)

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(a) (b)

(c)
Fig. 1.3: Transducer Arrangements: (a) Direct (b) Semi direct (c) Indirect

While the maximum pulse energy is transmitted at right angle to the face of the transmitter,
the direct method is the most reliable method from this perspective of transit time
measurement. In some cases, no opposite surfaces can be accessed, therefore this test can
also be also arranged with adjacent surfaces (semi-direct method) Fig. 1.3(b), and on the
same surface (indirect method) Fig. 1.3(c).

Objective

To determine the pulse velocity, crack depth and compressive strength of concrete by using
lab ultrasonic instrument.

Applicable Standards

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ASTM C597

Apparatus
Lab - Ultrasonic instrument

Test Procedure
Basic Measurements:

Step 1: Switch on the mains and apply little amount of grease to the two transducers faces.

Step 2: Use the reference bar to check and adjust the time reading on the instrument to be
the same as the calibration number on the bar as represented in Figure 3.

Fig. 1.4: Calibration rod

Pulse Velocity
Step 1: In order to determine the pulse velocity it is compulsory to measure the path length
between the two transducers.

Step 2: Press the transducers hardly onto the concrete opposite surfaces, and hold for a
while to allow readings to be taken, wait until a consistent reading appears on the display
screen of the instrument.

Step 3: Record the stable reading, which is the time (T) in microseconds for the ultrasonic
pulse to travel the path length and pulse velocity (V) in m/s.
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Compressive Strength (N/mm2)

When the pulse velocity is known it is easy to determine the compressive strength of
concrete by using the graph which indicates the relationship between the pulse velocity and
compressive strength of concrete.

c) IMPACT ECHO METHOD

The impact-echo method, is based on using a short-duration mechanical impact to generate

stress waves and a transducer to monitor the surface displacement due to the arrival of
direct and reflected stress waves. The use of mechanical impact provides a versatile method
for introducing a much higher amount of energy than is possible with an electrical
transducer.

Fig.1.5 Schematic of Impactor Echo Method

Working Principle

The impact produces a force-time history that can be approximated as a half-cycle sine
curve. The duration of the impact is called the contact time and has to be chosen carefully.
The receiver measures displacement normal to the surface, and the displacement history is
recorded and stored as a time-domain waveform as shown at the top center of Fig. 1..5. As
will be explained, the energy from the impact causes the test element to vibrate at a
characteristic frequency or frequencies, and these frequencies provide information about
the integrity of the element. A key feature of the data analysis method is the transformation
of the time-domain waveform into the amplitude spectrum using the fast Fourier transform
(FFT). The amplitude spectrum, shown in the top right of Fig. 1, indicates the predominant

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frequencies that are embedded in the waveform. The user needs to understand how to
interpret these frequencies.

If a solid is struck at a point, the disturbance propagates away from the impact point as
three types of stress waves. The P-wave and the S-wave propagate into the solid along
expanding spherical wavefronts, and the R-wave travels away from the impact along the
"near-surface" region (this is similar to the ripples created when a pebble is thrown into a
pond). The P-wave travels at the fastest speed and is associated with a normal stress. When
the P-wave passes by a given point, a particle vibrates parallel to the direction of
propagation, that is, along the radius drawn from the impact point to the location of the
particle (this line is called a ray path by analogy to a light ray). The S-wave travels at a
slower speed and is associated with a shearing stress. The R-wave moves at the slowest
speed and is more complex in terms of particle motion. When the R-wave passes by a
point, a particle moves in an elliptical path. Table 1 summarizes these types of waves in
terms of particle motion relative to direction of propagation, relative wave speed, and
energy content. It is seen that the majority of the energy is contained within the R-wave.
The effect of the R-wave is shown in the time-domain waveform in Fig. 1.5 as the large
surface displacement at the start of the waveform. The depth of the R-wave depends on the
frequency of the propagating wave; namely, the higher the frequency (the lower the
wavelength), the less is the depth.

d) REBAR LOCATOR

Objective

Determine Location of Rebars, measurement of concrete cover and bar diameter by

using Rebar detector.

Applicable Standards

BS 1881: Part 204

Apparatus

Profometer 5+ - Rebar Detection System

The Profometer 5+ rebar locator is a compact, easy handle and lightweight device which is
used to determine the location of rebars, measurement of concrete cover and bar diameter
without damaging the structure. The measuring method is based on the eddy-current
principle with pulse-induction.

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Fig. 1.6: Indicating device with universal probe

The basic unit can perform the following functions:

- Locating rebars
- Measuring concrete covers
- Storing individual cover values and statistical evaluation
- Determining the bar diameters

The Profometer 5+ consists of indicating device and universal probe as shown in the
Fig.1.6 above. The universal probe is proposed to function in a relation to the direction. So
it responds more sensitively to the rebars parallel to its longitudinal axis, and less sensitive
to the bars which are perpendicular to its longitudinal axis. why the probe should be
placed parallel to the bars to be tested and moved over them sideward for scanning.

Test Procedure

Step 1: Connect the universal probe to input A. If you want to use headset, connect it to the
socket available on the side showing headset symbol.
Step 2: Press the ON/OFF key.
- The following data will appear on screen shortly: Instrument model (model S or
CANLOG) Instrument serial no
- Installed software version
- Whether automatic self-test is O.K.
- The more or less black battery symbol indicates the battery status

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Fig. 1.7: Initial Display

Then the measuring display of the previously measured object appears (but without
values) as shown in Fig. 1.8 below.

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Fig. 1.8: Measuring Display

Step 3: Before starting the performance, should calibrate the display unit as per the
required standards. Press the MENU key to display the main menu as shown in Fig. 1.9
below.

Fig. 1.9: Main MENU

Step 4: Set all the parameters in the MENU bar. Then take reading by using universal probe.
e) CORE EXTRACTION FOR COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST
The concrete core test is required when concrete is hardened and laboratory cube test result
shows negative result, then to ensure the quality of strength of concrete work the core test on
concrete is performed. In the core test, the sample or core is collected from the hardened
concrete and extracted using the core cutting machine and then these cores are used to
determine the compressive strength of concrete.

CONCLUSION
Summarize the key findings and insights on different non-destructive tests used in
structural engineering.

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EXPERIMENT 6
EXPOSURE TO VARIOUS DURABILITY TESTS CONDUCTED ON
CONCRETE

AIM
To get an understanding of different durability tests conducted on concrete

SORPTIVITY TEST

This test method measures the rate of movement of water front through the concrete under
capillary suction. The test method is based on measuring the weight change of a cylindrical
sample that is previously conditioned. One of the flat face of the specimen is kept in contact
with water, which gets absorbed by capillary absorption as shown in fig 7.1. The opposite
face is exposed to the atmosphere while the curved surface is sealed to prevent water
penetration. Sorptivity is derived from the plot of the cumulative changes in mass divided by
the exposed area and density of water, versus the square root of time. Slices of cores can also
be used as sample for test after conditioning. The quality of concrete can be classified as per
the sorptivity values given in Table 7.1

Fig 7.1 Sorptivity Test set-up

Table 7.1 Classification criteria

Water sorptivity
Concrete quality
mm/hr
<6 Very Good
6 – 10 Good
10 – 15 Poor
> 15 Very Poor

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OXYGEN PERMEABILITY TEST

This test measures the pressure decay of oxygen passed through an oven dried sample which
is placed in a falling head permeameter. The schematic arrangement of the oxygen
permeability test method is shown in Fig 7.2. The concrete samples are generally 70mm in
diameter and 25mm to 30mm thick. Samples are oven dried at 50°C for 7 days. The specimen
is then placed in a pressure vessel with an airtight sealing. The pressure vessel is then
pressurized to oxygen pressure of 100kPa, after which the connection to the oxygen cylinder
is cut and sealed.

Fig 7.2 Schematic arrangement of the oxygen permeability cell

The only exit for the oxygen is then through the concrete specimen fitted in the rubber collar.
The pressure decrease in the vessel is recorded in function of time. Based on the Darcy’s
equation for permeation, the oxygen permeability index (OPI) is determined from the slope of
the line produced by this plot. The OPI is defined as the negative log of the coefficient of
permeability. The higher is the OPI index, the less permeable is the concrete. Table 7.2 gives
the classification of quality of concrete based on the oxygen permeability index.

Table 7.2 Classification criteria for OPI

Oxygen Permeability
Concrete quality
Index (OPI)
> 10 Very Good
9.5 – 10 Good
9.0 – 9.5 Poor
<9 Very Poor

RAPID CHLORIDE PERMEABILITY TEST

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This test is based on the principle that charged ions such as chloride ions CL - will accelerate
in an electric field towards the pole of opposite charge. Chloride ions are usually selected as a
medium for diffusion testing because chloride ion diffusion causes steel corrosion and the
size of the chloride ion is small enough to fit for diffusion.

In this test a standard specimen of 100mm diameter and 50mm thickness, is cut from the
centre of a cylindrical sample. The specimen is vacuumed and soaked for 24 hrs. The test
facility included positive and negative terminals made of plexiglass plate with an empty cell
and a circular opening of the same diameter as the specimen on one surface. The specimen is
mounted with two surfaces connected to the openings of the terminal using a sealing material.
A 3% NaCl solution is added to fill the cell on the negative terminal and the cell on the
positive terminal is filled with 0.3N NaOH. A constant voltage of 60V is applied for 6 hours.
Current is measured in each half hour. The total charge passing through the concrete
specimen is taken as the index of diffusivity of concrete. Table 7.3 shows the rate of chloride
ion diffusion based on the charge passed as per AST C1202 (2008), “Standard Test Method
for Electrical Indication of Concrete’s ability to resist chloride ion penetration”. The
schematic configuration of the test method is shown in Fi 7.3.

Table 7.3 Chloride Ion diffusion based on the charge passed

Charge passed Chloride ion
(coulombs) permeability
> 4000 High
2000 – 4000 Moderate
1000 – 2000 Low
100 – 1000 Very Low
< 100 Negligible

Fig 7.3 Configuration of rapid chloride permeability test

CONCLUSION

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Summarize the insights on different durability tests done on concrete specimens.

EXPERIMENT 7
EXPOSURE ON DIFFERENT REINFORCED CEMENT COMPOSITES

AIM
To get an understanding of different reinforced concrete composites.

INTRODUCTION
The development of polymer / concrete composites is aimed at both enhanced and novel
construction materials by merging the old technology of hydraulic cement concrete with
modern polymer technology. The need for such materials has always existed because the
traditional construction material Portland-Cement-Concrete (PCC) has the drawbacks of little
or no resistance to chemical attack, rapid deterioration under freeze/ thaw conditions due to
cyclic temperature changes; low tensile, shear and bond strengths; and inherent micro-
structural menaces (voids, shrinkage cracks, capillaries) which, individually or in
combination, shorten the service life of the structures.

FIBER-REINFORCED CONCRETE (FRC)

Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC) represents a significant evolution in the construction
industry, varying the robustness of traditional concrete with the enhanced properties derived
from strategically embedded fibers. The choice of fibers, be it steel, glass, or synthetics,
introduces a dynamic element that addresses one of concrete's historical weaknesses—tensile
strength. Traditional concrete is strong under compression but vulnerable to cracking under
tensile stress. FRC, however, mitigates this vulnerability by introducing fibers that act as a
reinforcement network, improving both tensile strength and toughness.

In practical applications, FRC finds versatility across a spectrum of construction needs.

Pavements, subjected to the relentless load of vehicles, benefit from the enhanced durability
and crack resistance that FRC offers. Overlays, designed to improve existing surfaces,
incorporate FRC to combat the forces of weathering and traffic. Moreover, the use of FRC in
precast products ensures that the finished structures possess not only the necessary strength
but also the capacity to withstand the challenges of diverse environments.

FIBER-REINFORCED POLYMER (FRP) COMPOSITES

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The advent of Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) composites marks a revolutionary departure
from conventional construction materials. This composite material combines fibers—carbon,
glass, or aramid—with a polymer matrix, resulting in a product that is not only structurally
robust but also lightweight and corrosion-resistant. The versatility of FRP extends its
applications into the aerospace and automotive industries, where the demands for strength,
lightness, and resistance to environmental factors converge.

In construction, FRP finds a essential role in strengthening structures, especially bridges and
buildings. The corrosion-resistant nature of FRP ensures a longer lifespan for structures,
particularly in environments prone to harsh weather conditions. The adaptability of FRP is
not confined to static structures; it extends to dynamic applications where weight reduction
and high strength are paramount, such as aircraft and automobiles. In these industries, FRP
composites redefine the parameters of material performance, showcasing a future where
traditional materials might take a back seat to advanced, multifaceted solutions.

HIGH-PERFORMANCE CONCRETE (HPC)

High-Performance Concrete (HPC) emerges as a game-changer in the construction materials,

representing a departure from the norm by incorporating specific proportions and additives to
elevate its inherent properties. Unlike conventional concrete, HPC is engineered for superior
mechanical and durability characteristics. Its deployment in the construction of high-rise
buildings, bridges, and critical infrastructure projects is not just a choice but a strategic
decision to ensure high compressive and flexural strength.

HPC's superiority lies in its ability to withstand the rigors of time and external forces. In
high-rise structures, where the demand for both strength and longevity is acute, HPC
becomes the material of choice. Bridges, subjected to dynamic loads and environmental
stresses, benefit from the enhanced durability and performance of HPC. The shift towards
HPC signals a paradigm shift in the construction industry, where the emphasis is not just on
meeting standards but on exceeding them, ensuring structures that stand resilient against the
tests of time.

ULTRA-HIGH-PERFORMANCE CONCRETE (UHPC)

Ultra-High-Performance Concrete (UHPC) takes the principles of high-performance concrete

to unprecedented levels, pushing the boundaries of strength, durability, and versatility. This
advanced material achieves its exceptional properties through the infusion of fine powders,

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fibers, and cutting-edge additives. UHPC finds its role in precast concrete elements, bridge
components, and architectural applications that demand not only high strength but also a
reduction in material thickness.

In precast elements, UHPC offers a transformative solution, allowing for the creation of
slender structures without compromising on strength. Bridge components, subjected to the
harshest environmental conditions and heavy loads, benefit from UHPC's resistance to
deterioration and exceptional load-bearing capacity. Architectural applications, where
aesthetics and performance converge, showcase the adaptability of UHPC in crafting
structures that challenge traditional constraints. UHPC stands as a testament to the relentless
pursuit of material engineering excellence, opening avenues for construction possibilities that
were once deemed unattainable.

REACTIVE POWDER CONCRETE (RPC)

Reactive Powder Concrete (RPC) emerges as a revolutionary force in the construction

material landscape, characterized by an exceptionally low water-cement ratio and a
sophisticated mix of fine powders, high-strength cement, and occasional fiber reinforcement.
This unique composition positions RPC as a material of choice in construction projects with
exacting performance requirements.

The high compressive strength of RPC makes it indispensable in structures where traditional
concrete falls short. The low permeability ensures resistance to environmental degradation,
contributing to the longevity of constructions. RPC's deployment in critical structures,
ranging from high-rise buildings to infrastructure projects, highlights its effectiveness in
delivering enhanced strength and extending the lifespan of constructions subjected to
rigorous demands. RPC embodies a new era in material engineering, where precision in
composition translates to unparalleled performance in the field, challenging preconceived
notions about what concrete can achieve.

ENGINEERED CEMENTITIOUS COMPOSITES (ECC)

Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC) represent a groundbreaking approach to

concrete design, introducing a strain-hardening behavior that sets it apart from conventional
materials. This unique property allows ECC to undergo significant deformation before failure
without sacrificing strength. Deployed in seismic-resistant structures, ECC becomes a pivotal
player in ensuring the resilience of buildings and infrastructure in the face of seismic events.

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The ability of ECC to absorb energy and deform under stress positions it as a frontrunner in
dynamic environments. Beyond seismic considerations, ECC finds application in repair and
retrofitting projects where the material's enhanced ductility becomes a critical factor. In
essence, ECC challenges traditional notions of concrete behavior, offering a material that not
only withstands dynamic loads but actively contributes to the structural integrity of
constructions over time. ECC exemplifies a holistic approach to material engineering, where
adaptability and resilience take precedence in the pursuit of durable and sustainable
structures.

CONCLUSION

Summarize the insights on different reinforced concrete composites.

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