CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE

Introduction
In recent years, there has been growing interest in the development of eco-

friendly alternatives to synthetic chemical products, especially in everyday items

such as ballpen ink. Most commercially available inks are composed of synthetic

dyes, petroleum-based solvents, and plastic-derived binders. These components are

often non-biodegradable and potentially toxic, contributing to environmental

pollution and raising health concerns through prolonged exposure. This has

encouraged the search for safer, more sustainable ink sources derived from natural

materials.

This study focuses on formulating a black ink using the leaves of Terminalia

catappa Linn., a tree known locally as talisay. Belonging to the Combretaceae

family, Terminalia catappa is commonly referred to as the tropical almond, sea

almond, or Indian almond. It is native to Asia, Australia, the Pacific, Madagascar,

and Seychelles, and is widely cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical countries as an

ornamental tree and for its edible fruits and seeds (Janporn et al., 2015; Kaneria et

al., 2018; Santos et al., 2021). The tree thrives in coastal environments, including

beach communities, rocky shores, and mangrove edges, due to its tolerance to salt

spray, strong winds, and moderately high salinity in the root zone (Ng et al., 2015;

Katiki et al., 2017; Silva et al., 2020). Each tree can bear fruit two to three times per

year, producing an average of 20 to 30 kilograms of fruit annually (Thomson &

Evans, 2006), contributing to a global yield of approximately 700,000 tons as of

2004 (Singh & Choudhary, 2012; Agu et al., 2019).

 In this research, the leaves of T. catappa are used as the primary source for

black ink production. The process involves aqueous extraction, aided by a small

amount of alcohol to enhance pigment release and serve as a natural preservative.

Despite the inclusion of alcohol, the ink remains largely plant-based and is

considered a more eco-friendly and safer alternative to synthetic commercial inks.

By utilizing a locally abundant and underused natural material, this study

aims to create an accessible, affordable, and environmentally conscious black ink

formulation, contributing to sustainable practices in both education and everyday

writing needs.

Theoretical Framework

This study is grounded on theories that emphasize sustainability, natural

compound utilization, and the adoption of innovation. These frameworks provide a

foundation for understanding the scientific, environmental, and social relevance of

developing alternative ink from Talisay (Terminalia catappa) leaves.

Green Chemistry Theory: The study is anchored on the Green Chemistry

Theory developed by Anastas and Warner (1998), which promotes the design of

products and processes that minimize or eliminate the use and generation of

hazardous substances. This theory encourages the use of renewable raw materials,

energy efficiency, and waste reduction in product development. The application of

this theory in the current study lies in the creation of an eco-friendly ink that

replaces conventional, synthetic ink with a natural, biodegradable alternative

derived from Talisay leaves. By minimizing toxic inputs and reducing chemical

waste, the study supports the principles of sustainability and environmental safety.
 Natural Product Chemistry Theory and STEE Theory: This study is also

supported by the Natural Product Chemistry Theory, which involves the discovery

and application of naturally occurring chemical compounds in plants, animals, and

other biological sources. Talisay leaves, rich in natural pigments and tannins, are

investigated for their potential use as natural colorants in ink formulation. This

aligns with the theory’s emphasis on utilizing bio-based compounds for practical

and commercial purposes. In addition, the STEE Theory (Socio-cultural,

Technological, Economic, and Environmental) provides a broader lens for evaluating

product innovation. This theory highlights the importance of assessing how socially

acceptable, technologically viable, economically practical, and environmentally

sustainable a new product is. In this study, these four dimensions are used to

determine the overall acceptability and real-world application of Talisay-based ink.

Innovation Diffusion Theory: Lastly, the study draws on the Innovation

Diffusion Theory developed by Everett Rogers (1962), which explains how new

technologies and ideas are adopted within a community. This theory emphasizes

key factors that influence adoption, such as perceived benefit, compatibility, ease of

use, and trialability. The relevance of this theory in the current study lies in

assessing how the natural ink innovation may be accepted and used by students,

teachers, and the broader community. Understanding these adoption patterns will

help determine the potential success and scalability of the product.

Null Hypothesis (H₀): There is no significant difference in the respondents’

evaluation of usefulness, color, texture, and quality between talisay-based ink and

commercial ballpen ink.

 Alternative Hypothesis (H₁): There is a significant difference in the

respondents’ evaluation of usefulness, color, texture, and quality between talisay-

based ink and commercial ballpen ink.

Statement of the Problem

This study explores the potential of Talisay (Terminalia catappa) leaves

extract as an alternative ink for ballpens. With growing environmental concerns and

the high cost of commercial inks, finding a sustainable, natural substitute becomes

essential. By formulating and evaluating Talisay-based ink, this research aims to

assess its practicality, quality, and acceptability as a writing medium.

Specifically, this study seeks to answer the following questions:

1. How is the alternative ink for ballpen formulated?

2. How do the respondents evaluate the alternative ink for ballpen in terms of:

2.1. Usefulness

2.2. Color

2.3. Texture

2.4. Quality

3. How do the responses of the participants differ on the alternative ink for ballpen

in terms of:

3.1. Usefulness

3.2. Color

3.3. Texture
 3.4. Quality

Conceptual Framework

A conceptual framework is an analytical tool used to connect and organize

the main ideas of a study. It can be applied across different fields where a general

overview or structure is needed. This tool helps in identifying key concepts, making

distinctions between them, and guiding the overall direction of the research (Swaen

& George, 2022).

The conceptual framework for the research is shown below:

Talisay (Terminalia
catappa) Leaf Extract

Natural Ballpen Ink

Fig.1 Conceptual Framework of the Study

Scope and limitation

This investigation defines specific criteria to determine the extent and

boundaries of the study. The scope focuses on what the research includes, while the
delimitations outline its limitations based on factors such as location, participants,

and time frame.

Subject Matter: This study focuses on the formulation and acceptability of

Talisay (Terminalia catappa) leaf extract as an alternative, natural ink for ballpens.

It aims to assess the ink’s usefulness, color, texture, and overall quality, based on

the evaluation and feedback from selected respondents.

Research Environment and Timeline: The research will be conducted at

Malangas National High School during the Second Semester of the School Year

2024–2025. Research Participants: Participants in the study will include selected

Senior High School students and faculty members of Malangas National High School,

as well as representatives from the Local Government Unit (LGU) who will serve as

evaluators and potential end-users of the product.

Research Design: This study will utilize a quantitative experimental research

design, which involves the actual formulation of talisay-based ink, its application to

writing instruments, and the evaluation of its performance based on defined

measurable criteria.

Research Method: The study will employ survey questionnaires and interviews

as primary data-gathering tools. These instruments will be used to assess

participants’ perceptions of the ink’s usefulness, color, texture, and quality, as well

as to collect their suggestions and recommendations for improvement.

Significance of the Study

The study on the Formulation and Acceptability of Talisay (Terminalia catappa)

Leaf Extract as an Alternative Ink for Ballpens holds significance for various

stakeholders:

Students. This study allows students to explore sustainable and eco-friendly

innovations by utilizing natural materials like talisay leaves in product development,

particularly in educational tools such as ink.

Teachers. Teachers may use this research as a reference in lessons on

chemistry, environmental science, or entrepreneurship to promote awareness about

biodegradable alternatives and local resources.

Schools. Educational institutions can promote this study to encourage

sustainable practices and possibly support the creation of low-cost, nature-based

materials for instructional use.

Community. The community may benefit from this innovation by recognizing

the value of underused local resources like talisay leaves, promoting environmental

awareness and potential small-scale livelihood opportunities.

Future Researchers. This study provides a foundation for further research in

natural ink production, green chemistry applications, and the expanded use of

indigenous materials in product development.

Definition of Terms

Talisay (Terminalia catappa). A tropical tree commonly found in coastal

areas in the Philippines, whose leaves are rich in tannins and natural pigments

suitable for use in ink formulation.

Talisay Leaf Extract. A liquid solution derived from boiling or soaking talisay

leaves, used as a primary pigment source in the development of natural black ink.

Natural Ink. Ink formulated using plant-based materials instead of synthetic

dyes and chemicals, typically more biodegradable and environmentally friendly.

Ballpen Ink. A colored fluid used in ballpoint pens to enable writing; in this

study, it refers to ink made from talisay leaf extract.

Eco-friendly. Describes products or processes that cause minimal harm to the

environment, often biodegradable and non-toxic.

 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter includes the ideas of studies, journals, books, and scholarly

articles related to natural inks. These references support the development and

generalization of this research, particularly the formulation of natural ink using

Terminalia catappa (Talisay) leaf extract

Related Literature

Natural dyes derived from plants have increasingly gained interest due to

their eco-friendly properties, biodegradability, and alignment with sustainable

production goals. As noted by Dey et al. (2025), the use of plant-based pigments

such as tannins and flavonoids helps reduce the environmental hazards

associated with synthetic inks, especially in terms of wastewater toxicity and

long-term soil degradation. These natural compounds, found abundantly in

leaves, barks, and fruits of various species, are known for their rich

pigmentation and binding ability. In a study by Pizzicato et al. (2023), the

application of sustainable extraction methods for natural pigments was shown to

significantly reduce carbon emissions and energy usage in ink production

compared to petrochemical-derived inks. The potential of Terminalia catappa,

commonly known as Talisay, as a source of natural ink lies in its high tannin

content, which allows strong bonding with mordants such as ferrous sulfate.

Kamarudin et al. (2021) emphasized that the formation of iron-tannin complexes

through oxidation contributes to a stable and rich black color. These interactions

are critical for ink permanence and resistance to fading. Similarly, Patel and
Singh (2022) reported that flavonoids in plant leaves enhance the vibrancy and

durability of inks when combined with acidic mordants. The oxidative behavior

of these phytochemicals, as highlighted by Huang and Liu (2020), also improves

color depth during heating processes, supporting their suitability for long-term

use in inks.

Several publications also discuss the aesthetic quality and visual

performance of natural inks. According to Lee et al. (2023), natural inks

processed with proper mordanting and filtration produce uniform consistency,

smoother writing flow, and a visually pleasing finish. This was confirmed by Wu

and Tanaka (2021), who observed increased user satisfaction in applications

where natural inks showed controlled viscosity and good surface adhesion. De

Guzman and Rojas (2024) additionally noted that color uniformity and reduced

bleeding are essential for artistic and academic use, which are achievable with

well-formulated botanical inks. From a design and packaging standpoint, Deriu

(2023) suggested that inks sourced from plant-based waste such as fallen

leaves (including Talisay) can contribute to circular economy practices when

integrated with biodegradable containers.

Cost-efficiency and local sourcing further increase the feasibility of natural

inks. A study by Goh et al. (2022) found that replacing carbon black with biochar

pigment not only lowered material costs but also improved biodegradability.

Likewise, Al Kakoun (2022) reported that water-based soy protein inks reduced

the cost of commercial printing operations. These examples illustrate how

natural, renewable raw materials like Talisay leaves can offer significant
financial and ecological advantages. According to InkWorld Magazine (2023),

there is a growing market shift toward bio-based inks with low VOC emissions,

and producers are increasingly exploring materials from native and locally

available plants.

The physical behavior of natural ink, such as flow properties and stability,

plays a vital role in determining its usability. Environmental Science and

Pollution Research (2023) found that optimal viscosities for writing inks fall

between 9.98 and 13.73 cP, offering good flow under low shear conditions. This

range is achievable in properly filtered and binder-enhanced plant-based

formulations. Gao et al. (2020) and Kim et al. (2020) supported this by showing

that the rheological behavior of bio-inks made from herbal extracts mirrors

commercial standards when surfactants and thickeners are carefully balanced.

Moreover, the shelf life of such inks can be extended using natural antimicrobial

properties found in plant extracts. Rahman and Hasan (2022) demonstrated that

Talisay extract maintained structural integrity and antibacterial activity across

pH 3–9, reducing spoilage risks. Bharathi and Divya (2021) further proved that

silver nanoparticles synthesized from Talisay leaf extract offered 63–74% biofilm

inhibition, serving as natural preservatives. Collectively, these findings support

the potential of Terminalia catappa-based inks as both effective and sustainable

alternatives in the ink industry.

Related Studies

Empirical studies have verified the practicality and effectiveness of plant-

based inks, particularly those made from Talisay leaves. Wong and Tan (2021)

created a prototype ink formulation using Talisay extract and reported drying

times of 2.3 seconds, minimal smudging, and compatibility with ballpoint and

fountain pens. These characteristics are important in educational and

professional settings where clean, consistent writing is required. Similarly,

Nagrale and Kamble (2020) tested the flow behavior and pigment intensity of

natural ink extracted from Talisay leaves and concluded that it had strong

adhesion to paper, no clogging, and retained legibility after multiple weeks.

Chen and Zhang (2024) explored the effects of polyethylene glycol as a binder

and found it improved the film-forming ability of natural inks while preserving

pigment clarity and water resistance.

Color permanence and intensity have also been the subject of several

studies. Kusumastuti et al. (2022) observed that ferrous sulfate mordants

significantly enhanced the black pigmentation of Talisay leaf ink compared to

alum or copper mordants. Their results showed that tannin-rich plant inks

demonstrated superior permanence when iron mordants were used. This was

echoed by Silva et al. (2023), who noted that pigment absorption on paper

improved dramatically with the proper combination of pH, solvent concentration,

and reaction time. Santo et al. (2021) further showed that ink applied on

uncoated paper exhibited greater smudge resistance and colorfastness when

formulated with controlled heating and acidic conditions. Studies have also

validated the storage and preservation capacity of Talisay-based inks. Canopy

and Gonzales (2023) examined spray-dried Talisay leaf pigment and found it

remained stable at up to 155°C, with no notable color degradation in low

humidity storage. In real-world storage scenarios, Manuel (2020) tested

powdered ink formulations in room temperature conditions and confirmed

pigment quality retention for up to six months without mold formation or

clumping. These findings demonstrate the feasibility of long-term use and the

potential for packaging as a market-ready product. In terms of user experience

and acceptance, De Guzman and Rojas (2024) conducted a preference survey

involving art students and general consumers. Respondents favored Talisay-

based ink when its flow, shade, and smoothness were optimized, especially in

comparison to low-cost commercial inks. Hernandez et al. (2022) found that

academic users preferred natural inks with improved drying time and color

consistency, as these properties contributed to clearer handwriting and less

smudging in notebooks and exams. The feedback underscores the usability of

these inks in education-focused environments.

Finally, surface interaction studies affirm the adaptability of Talisay ink

across different paper types. Liu et al. (2022) tested PVA-based surface coatings

to enhance ink retention and found that botanical inks absorbed better and

showed minimal feathering. Deng et al. (2021) confirmed that modifying paper

porosity and sizing could enhance drying speed and pigment adhesion. These

technical findings, combined with consumer-based feedback, indicate that

Talisay-derived ink can meet quality standards when carefully processed and
tested. As interest in sustainable, low-cost, and biodegradable writing materials

grows, such studies reinforce the promising potential of this natural alternative.