IC Engines and Reciprocating Machines

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 Heat engine

 A heat engine is a device which transforms the

chemical energy and thermal energy and uses
this energy to produce mechanical work.
 Heat engine

 Heat engines may be classified into two main classes

as follows

1. External Combustion Engine.

2. Internal Combustion Engine

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MAIN COMPONENTS OF IC ENGINES:

4-Stroke Cycle Spark Ignition

Engine

2-Stroke Cycle Spark Ignition Engine

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 Cylinder
• It is the main part of the engine
inside which piston reciprocates to
and fro.
• It should have high strength to
withstand high pressure above 50
bar and temperature above 2000 oC.
• In the multi-cylinder engine, the
cylinders are cast in one block
known as cylinder block.
 Cylinder Head

• The top end of the cylinder is covered by

cylinder head over which inlet and
exhaust valve, spark plug or injectors are
mounted.
• A copper or asbestos gasket is provided
between the engine cylinder and cylinder
head to make an air tight joint.
 Piston
Transmit the force exerted by
the burning of charge to the
connecting rod. Usually made
of aluminium alloy which has
good heat conducting property
and greater strength at higher
temperature
 Piston rings

• These are housed in the circumferential

grooves provided on the outer surface of
the piston and made of steel alloys which
retain elastic properties even at high
temperature.
• 2 types of rings- compression and oil
rings.
• Compression ring is upper ring of the
piston which provides air tight seal to
prevent leakage of the burnt gases into
the lower portion.
• Oil ring is lower ring which provides
effective seal to prevent leakage of the
oil into the engine cylinder.
 Connecting rod
• It converts reciprocating motion of
the piston into circular motion of
the crank shaft, in the working
stroke.
• The smaller end of the connecting
rod is connected with the piston by
pin and bigger end of the
connecting rod is connected with
the crankpin.
• The special steel alloys or
aluminum alloys are used for the
manufacture of connecting rod.
 Crankshaft

• It converts the reciprocating motion

of the piston into the rotary motion
with the help of connecting rod.
• The special steel alloys are used for
the manufacturing of the crankshaft.
• It consists of eccentric portion
called crank.
 MAIN COMPONENTS OF IC ENGINES

Crank case
It houses crank and crankshaft of
the IC engine and also serves as
sump for the lubricating oil.
Flywheel
It is big wheel mounted on
the crankshaft, whose function is to
maintain its speed constant. It is
done by storing excess energy
during the power stroke, which is
returned during other stroke.
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 BASIC ENGINE NOMENCLATURE

 Top dead Centre  Cylinder bore

 Bottom dead Centre • Square engine[B/L = 1]
 Piston stroke • Under square engine[L>B]
• Over square engine[L<B]
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 CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT ENGINES

• According to the basic engine design-

– Reciprocating engine (Use of cylinder piston
arrangement),

– Rotary engine (Use of turbine)

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FOUR-STROKE-CYCLE SPARK-IGNITION (PETROL) ENGINE
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 TWO-STROKE-CYCLE PETROL ENGINE

[Link] and compression stroke:

The piston moves down the cylinder
and initially uncover the exhaust port
(E) releasing the burnt gases to the
atmosphere. Such a movement also
compresses the charge in the
crankcase. Further movement of the
piston uncover the transfer port (T)
allowing the compressed mixture to
be transferred to the inside of the
cylinder pushing out any remaining
of the burnt gases
 TWO-STROKE-CYCLE PETROL ENGINE

[Link] and exhaust stroke: The piston moves

in the direction of the cylinder head, sealing off
all ports and compressing the mixture. Further
movement of the piston increases the volume
in the crankcase, creating suction so when the
inlet port is uncovered fresh charge is sucked in
the crankcase. Just before reaching the TDC, a
spark plug ignites the compressed mixture,
raising the pressure and temperature of the
mixture very rapidly. The burnt gases expand
forcing the piston to move down the cylinder.
 ENGINES

Four-stroke engine Two-stroke engine

Four stroke of the piston and two Two stroke of the piston and one
revolution of crankshaft revolution of crankshaft

One power stroke in every two revolution One power stroke in each revolution of
of crankshaft crankshaft

Heavier flywheel due to non-uniform Lighter flywheel due to more uniform

turning movement turning movement

Power produce is less Theoretically power produce is twice than

the four stroke engine for same size

Heavy and bulky Light and compact

Lesser cooling and lubrication Greater cooling and lubrication
requirements requirements
 ENGINES

Four-stroke engine Two-stroke engine

Lesser rate of wear and tear Higher rate of wear and tear

Contains valve and valve mechanism Contains ports arrangement

Higher initial cost Cheaper initial cost

Volumetric efficiency is more due to Volumetric efficiency less due to lesser
greater time of induction time of induction
Thermal efficiency is high and also part Thermal efficiency is low, part load
load efficiency better efficiency lesser
It is used where efficiency is important It is used where low cost, compactness and
light weight are important.

Ex-cars, buses, trucks, tractors, industrial Ex-lawn movers, scooters, motor cycles,
engines, aero planes, power generation mopeds, propulsion ship etc.
etc.
 VALVES

 Allow fresh air-fuel mixture to enter and the burn

gases to leave from the cylinder.
 The valves are the doors of the combustion
chamber
 The conventional automotive engine is fitted with
mechanically operated poppet valves for both inlet
and exhaust.
 The poppet valve consists of two parts, the head
and the stem
 The heads of the inlet and exhaust valves are
different diameter, for better engine breathing, a
inlet valve has a larger diameter than the exhaust
valve
Valve materials

Inlet valves run much cooler than exhaust valves and may be
made of materials such as carbon steel, nickel steel or chrome-
molybdenum alloys or tungsten steel, which may be hardened and
will withstand high stresses and the exhaust valves are primarily
made of high heat resistant metals such as nichrome, silicon-
chromium, or cobalt-chromium alloys.

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 VALVE OVERLAP

• Both the inlet and exhaust valves of the same cylinders are
open at the same time is called valve overlap. It normally
occurs about T.D.C between the exhaust and intake strokes
•

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• VALVE LEAD:
The opening of a valve before either TDC or BDC is
called valve lead. [(Or the valve opens before its stroke]. If the
exhaust valve opens during the power stroke before the
exhaust stroke begins. If the inlet valve opens before the start
of the intake stroke, it’s called as valve lead.
• VALVE LAG:
The closing of a valve after TDC or BDC is called valve
lag. It occurs when the inlet valve remains open after the piston
has reached BDC. It also occurs when the exhaust valve does
not close until after the piston has reached TDC.

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 PERFORMANCE CHARCTERISITICS

Engine performance is an indication of the

degree of success with which it does its assigned
job.

The conversion of chemical energy contained in

the fuel into the useful mechanical work.
 PERFORMANCE CHARCTERISITICS

The performance of the engine depends on inter-relationship

between power developed, speed and the specific fuel
consumption at each operating condition within the useful range
of speed and load.
1. Power and mechanical efficiency
1. Power and mechanical efficiency
 1. Power and mechanical efficiency

iii. Frictional Power

The difference between I.P. and B.P. is called
fictional power, F.P.

iv. Mechanical Efficiency

The ratio of B.P. to I.P. is called mechanical
efficiency.
 5. Fuel-air ratio

• A mixture that contains just enough air for complete combustion of all
the fuel in the mixture is called a chemically correct or stoichiometric
fuel-air ratio.
• A mixture having more fuel than that in a chemically correct mixture is
termed as rich mixture and a mixture that contains less fuel (or excess
air) is called a lean mixture.
• The ratio of actual fuel-air ratio to stoichiometric fuel-air ratio is called
equivalence ratio and is denoted by

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 Introduction FUELS

Fuel - solid, liquid or gaseous

Chemical fuel - releases heat energy on combustion

Principal combustible elements of any fuel

carbon

hydrogen

Presence sulphur in the fuel is considered to be undesirable

[formation of H2SO4 and emission of oxide of sulphur]

Primary fuels are available naturally(Coal, Wood etc.)

Secondary fuels are processed and prepared by us(Petrol,
Diesel, kerosene etc.)
 Fuels for Engines
IC Engines can be operated on different types
of fuels
1. Gaseous
2. Liquid
3. Originally solid also but now very
rarely used.
May be
[Link] available or
[Link] derived
 Introduction
In order to generate Heat, Combustion of Fuel are
required

Combustion
Fuel+ Flue Gas+
Air Heat

Therefore the fundamental knowledge of

different types of Fuel characteristics is essential
in order to understand the combustion process
 Solid Fuels
Solid fuels have little practical application at the present
because of
• Problem of handling
• Disposing of the solid residue or ash
• Feeding are quite cumbersome

Therefore this fuels have become

unsuitable for I.C Engine application.
 Gaseous Fuels
Gaseous Fuels are ideal and pose very few problems in
using them in IC engine
Main gaseous fuels for engines are
 Natural gas – from nature
 Liquefied Petroleum Gas - from refineries
 Producer gas - from coal or biomass
 Biogas - from biomass
 Hydrogen – from many sources
 Gaseous Fuels
• Advantages of Gaseous Fuels
 Mix more homogeneously with air
 Eliminate starting problems
• Disadvantage
 Storage and handling Problem

• Therefore gaseous fuels are commonly used for

stationary power plants located near the source of
available of the fuel.
• Some of the gaseous fuel can be liquefied under
 Natural gas
• Found compressed in porous rock and shale
formations sealed in rock layer underground.
• Frequently exists near or above oil deposits.
• It is a mixture of hydrocarbons and non
hydrocarbons in gaseous phase or in solution with
crude oil.
• Raw gas contains mainly methane (60-90 %) plus
lesser amounts of ethane, propane, butane and
pentane, negligible sulfur, nitrogen, carbon dioxide
and helium are present.
 Natural Gas

• Natural Gas may be used as

 Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG).
 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG).

• Natural Gas can be made artificially called

substitute, or synthetic or Supplemental
Natural Gas (SNG).
 Natural gas

Preparation of Natural
Gas
1. Separation of liquid and gas.
Liquid may be a hydrocarbon present in the gas well along
with the gas.

2. Dehydration.
Water is corrosive and hydrates may form which will plug the
flow. Water will also reduce the calorific value of the gas.

3. Desulfurization.
Presence of hydrogen sulfide is undesirable. The gas is called
 … Fuels

Types of fuel Natural Prepared (Secondary)

(Primary)
Solid Wood, Peat Coke, Charcoal, Briquettes
Lignite coal

Liquid Petroleum Gasoline, Diesel, Kerosene, Alcohol, Benzoyl

Gaseous Natural gas Petroleum gas, Producer gas, Coal gas, Coke-
oven gas, Blast furnace gas, Carbureted gas,
Sewer gas

The properties and the character of the fuel influence

the design, power output, efficiency, fuel consumption, the reliability and
durability of the engine
 Cracking Process
• Braking down large and complex hydrocarbons
molecules into simpler compounds.
• Thermal Cracking
 Large hydrocarbon molecules at height temperature and
pressure are decomposed in to smaller, lower boiling
point molecules
• Catalytic Cracking
 Using catalysts at relatively lower pressure
and temperature thermal cracking
 … Fuels
Specific Gravity
 Measure of density of liquid fuel
 It can be measured by hydrometers
 Density of fuel usually less than that of water, i.e.
fuel floats on Water
 Specific gravity (SG) is a dimensionless number
 … Fuels
Heating value
 Heating or calorific value
 Heat or energy produced during combustion per
unit mass of fuel
 … Fuels
Volatility
• Volatility is a fuel’s ability to vaporize or change from
liquid to vapor
Flash Point of Fuels
• Flash point of a flammable liquid
is the lowest temperature at which it can form an
ignitable mixture in air
Viscosity
Measure of resistance to flow
 … Fuels
Cloud & Pour Points
• Cloud Point
is the temperature at which large molecules start to form
crystals
• Pour Point
Lowest temperature at which fuel will flow.
 … Fuels
Fuel Impurities:
Sulfur
• Sulfur compounds naturally present in crude oil but
most of sulfur removed during refining
• Must be limited to prevent corrosion in engine and
exhaust system
Other Fuel Impurities
Gum-
Viscous liquid formed in gasoline during storage,
limits storage time for fuel
 … Fuels
Water & sediment
can enter during handling and storage
Water
can promote the formation of slime/algae
can undermine lubricity of diesel fuel Sulfur
 SI ENGINE FUELS

Gasoline is the major fuel used for S.I. engines,

a mixture of various hydrocarbons (such as paraffin, olefin,
napthene, and aromatics)
Molecular Formula - C8H18 .
The composition depends on
• the source of crude oil
• the nature of refining process
Combustion process
Pre-ignition
Pre-ignition
• Comparison of Knocking in SI and CI Engines

Parameter SI Engines CI Engines

Timing Occurs at the end of Occurs at the beginning

combustion of combustion

Major Cause Auto ignition of end Ignition of accumulated

charge fresh charge

Pre-Ignition Possible as the fuel Not possible as only air

air mixture is is compressed
compressed
 Parameters which reduce knocking in SI and CI Engines
[Link] Parameter SI CI
. Engines Engines
1 Self Ignition Temperature of fuel High Low

2 Ignition Delay Long Short

3 Inlet Temperature Low High
4 Inlet Pressure Low High
5 Compression Ratio Low High
6 Speed Low High
7 Combustion Chamber Wall Low High
Temperature
8 Cylinder Size Small Large
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Cooling, friction wear and Lubrication
 Cooling System

• When fuel is oxidized (burned) heat is produced.

• About 25% of the heat generated is lost to the
cooling medium remainder being dissipated
through exhaust and lubricating oil.
• Additional heat is also generated by friction
between the moving parts.
• This heat must also be removed.
• The turbocharged diesel engine requires less
cooling air than naturally aspired diesel engines.

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 Cooling System
An automotive cooling system must perform
several functions
 Prevent Overheating
Remove excess heat from the engine
Peak temperatures exceed melting point of
metal
 Regulate the most efficient Temperature
Regulate Temperature
Allow engine to warm up in cool weather
Maintain engine in optimum range.

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 Cooling Terms

Thermal Conductivity
– Ability of a material to conduct and transfer heat

Thermal expansion
- Expansion of a material when it is heated.

Thermal growth
- Increase in size caused by heating.
– When cooled does not return to normal size.

Thermal distortion
– Asymmetrical or nonlinear thermal expansion.

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Engine cooling