CHAPTER 3: Basic Concepts of FEM

The Finite Element Method: Introduction

For studying physical phenomena or engineering problems, engineers and scientists are
involved with two major tasks:
 Mathematical formulation of the physical problem: The behaviour of the
problem is expressed or modeled by means of integro-differential equations. Such
equations are quite complicated and are known as behaviour/governing equations.
 Numerical analysis of the mathematical model: It is very difficult or
impossible to solve the complicated integro-differential governing equations by
conventional methods of mathematics. Hence numerical methods which yield
approximate solutions are adopted.
Many numerical methods of solving the behavoiur/governing equations have been tried.
But most of them have their own restrictions. The Finite Element Method (FEM) is the
only numerical method which has got less restrictions of usage. In fact, it can be
successfully applied to almost all fields of engineering like structural engineering,
thermal problems, fluid flow, electrical field, magnetism, acoustics, earth quake analysis,
seepage problems, soil mechanics, etc.
The basis of Finite Element Method (FEM) is ‘Discretization’ i.e., to represent the region
(continuum) of the problem by an assemblage of finite number of standard shaped sub
divisions known as ‘Elements’. Finite number of elements is a requirement of the
numerical method. These elements are interconnected to each other at common points
known as ‘Nodes’. The properties (geometrical and material) of the elements are first
established in the form of ‘Element Equations’. They are then assembled to obtain a very
large set of simultaneous equations known as ‘Global Equations’, which closely
represents the behaviour of the whole problem. Boundary conditions and loads are
applied to these global equations. Using a suitable matrix method, the global equations
are solved to obtain unknown nodal displacements. The element stresses and strains are
then obtained from the evaluated nodal displacements. Hence, FEM with the help of
numerical procedures produces a solution, which is close to the exact solution. Hence,
FEM provides an approximate solution.

Boundary Value Problems: Most of the problems in engineering are Boundary Value
Problems. These are problems where the values of the unknown variables are known at
some region of the boundary of the problems.
Example (1): In a cantilever beam problem, we intend to find the unknown variables
(deflection and slope) at all points along the axis of the beam. But we know the values of
deflection and slope at the fixed end which is zero each.
Example (2): In a heat transfer problem of a furnace wall we intend to find the
temperature distribution in the wall, i.e., temperature is the unknown variable. But we
know the temperatures at the inner surface and the outside ambient surface of furnace
walls.
Why FEM is used widely to solve problems of engineering?
 In all the problems of engineering, we may require to find the value of the
dependent variable at any specified point in the continuum.
 For this, the governing differential equations must be solved to get the value of
the dependent variable.
 But, in actual practice, engineering problems involve complicated geometries
(continuums), loadings and varying material properties.
 Due to this, it may be impossible to specify the boundary conditions, consider
material properties and solve the governing differential equation.
 In such a situation, we go for numerical methods such as “Finite Element
Method” (FEM) to get approximate but acceptable solutions.

Definition of FEM: The Finite Element Method is a numerical method for solving
problems of engineering and mathematical physics where their behaviour/governing
equations are expressed by integral or differential equations.
The FEM formulation of the problem results in a set of simultaneous algebraic equations
for solution, instead of requiring the solution of the governing differential equation. This
yields approximate values of the variables at discrete points in the continuum

Advantages of FEM
 Model irregularly shaped bodies quite easily.
 Handle general load conditions without difficulty.
 Model bodies composed of different materials because their element equations are
evaluated individually.
 Handle unlimited numbers and kinds of Boundary Conditions
 Vary the size of the elements to make it possible to use small elements where ever
necessary.
 Alter the FEM Model relatively easily & cheaply
 Include dynamic effects
 Handle nonlinear behaviour existing with large deformations and non linear materials

Disadvantages of FEM
 Solution obtained by FEM is approximate.
 A large number of iterations must be performed to obtain convergence of FEM
solution to actual solution.
 Selection of proper elements (type and shape) and displacement functions
depends upon the user’s knowledge, experience and skill.
 User of FEM should possess good modelling skills so that boundary conditions
are well defined.
 Interpretation of FEM results is again the task of the human user.

Application of FEM
Structural:
™ Stress analysis of truss and frame, stress concentration problems
™ Buckling problems
™ Vibration analysis
Non Structural:
™ Heat Transfer
 ™ Fluid flow, including seepage through porous media
™ Distribution of electric or magnetic potential
™ Acoustics
Others:
Biomedical engineering problems – analysis of human spine, skull, hip joints,
jaw/gum tooth implants, heart and eyes.

Some basic terminologies used in FEM:

1. Discretization (Meshing): The process of dividing the model of the problem continuum
into a finite number of regular subdivisions
2. Elements: Each subdivision is called an “Element”
3. Nodes: The grid (connection) points at which the elements meet each other are called
“nodes”
4. Degrees of Freedom (DOF): The total number of variables (displacements) that are
associated with each node
5. Boundary Conditions: Known values of the variable at the continuum boundary
6. Displacement Function: It is an assumed polynomial expression which closely represents
the anticipated variation of the unknown variable over the element domain.

General Steps of the Finite Element Method:

1. Select Element type and discretize the continuum
2. Select a Displacement Function
3. Define the Strain/Displacement and Stress/Strain Relationships
4. Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix and Element Equations
5. Assemble the Element Equations to obtain Global Equations
6. Apply Boundary Conditions and modify the Global Equations
7. Solve for unknown variables
8. Solve for Element Strains and Stresses
9. Interpret the results
Use of a computer in FEM:
 To provide a User Interactive Graphics Environment while modeling the problem
continuum.
 To create a data base of the input data.
 To evaluate the element equations and store them in matrix form.
 To assemble the element equations (by superposition) and form the global equations.
 To solve the very large set of simultaneous algebraic equations by tools like ‘Gauss
Elimination Method’.
 To evaluate the unknown element parameters.
 To create a data base of the results.
 To graphically display the results
 To provide the animated results.

General Structure of Commercially available FEM software:

Some of the commonly known FEA tools are: ANSYS, ABAQUS, MSC NASTRAN,
COSMOS, COMSOL, NISA, iDEAS etc.
General Steps of the Finite Element Method:
Step-1 -Discretization and Selection of Element Type
Problem Dimensions:
One Dimensional Problems: If only one independent coordinate axis is sufficient to
represent the displacement, material and geometry of the problem, then such problems are
known as One Dimensional Problems. Line Elements are used to model 1D problems.
Two Dimensional Problems: If two independent coordinate axes are required to represent
the displacement, material and geometry of the problem, then such problems are known as
Two Dimensional Problems. Area Elements are used to model 2D problems.
Three Dimensional Problems: If three independent coordinate axes are required to
represent the displacement, material and geometry of the problem, then such problems are
known as Three Dimensional Problems. Volume Elements are used to model 3D problems.

Basic types of Elements used in FEM:

Discretization is a process of engineering judgment. A selection of the shape or configuration
of the basic element in FEM is very important. The choice of the element depends upon the
geometry (structure) of the problem and the number of independent space coordinates
necessary to describe the system. A finite element has usually a One or Two or Three
dimensional configuration. The boundary of the element may be straight (in most of the
cases) or curvilinear.
One Dimensional Elements (Line Elements): When the geometry, material and
displacement can be expressed in terms of only independent space coordinate, a 1D element
may be chosen. The coordinate is measured along the axis of the element.

A 1D element can be represented by a straight line whose end points are nodes (nodal
points). The nodal points numbered 1 & 2 are called external nodes because they represent
connecting points with adjacent elements. Some applications may require additional nodes,
such as node 3. It is called an internal node because it doesn’t form a connecting point with
adjacent elements. Additional nodes are usually used to improve the FEM result.

Two Dimensional Elements (Area Elements): When the geometry, material and
displacement can be expressed by minimum two independent space coordinate, a 2D element
may be chosen. Problems that can be modeled with 2D elements are plane stress, plane strain
and axisymmetric problems.
A 2D element can be represented by a triangular or quadrilateral configuration. In the
triangular element, the corner nodes (1, 2 & 3) are called primary external nodes. Additional
nodes on the sides (like nodes 4, 5 & 6) are called secondary external nodes. An internal node
(like node 7) may be used in a triangular element Similarly, a quadrilateral configuration may
have a minimum of 4 primary external nodes. As well they may contain the additional
secondary external nodes and the internal nodes. A special case of the quadrilateral
configuration is the rectangular configuration.
Three Dimensional Elements (Volume Elements): When the geometry, material and
displacement can be expressed by minimum of three independent space coordinate, a 3D
element may be chose
A tetrahedron element is the basic 3D element that can be used in FEM. It has 4 primary
external nodes. 3D elements with 8 primary external nodes may be the hexahedron element
or the rectangular prism element. The rectangular prism element is a special case of
hexahedron element.

Axisymmetric Problem: Problems involving 3D axisymmetric solids or solids of revolution,

subjected to axisymmetric loading, can be reduced to simple 2D problems. Because of the
total symmetry about ‘z’ axis, all deformations and stresses are independent of the rotational
angle ‘’. Thus the problem needs to be looked as a 2D problem in ‘r’ & ‘z’ coordinates only,
which defines the revolving area.
Higher Order Elements:
These are elements which have additional nodes on the element boundary as well as in the
interior. By providing additional DOFs, the FEM solution accuracy (nearness to exact
solution) can be improved. Additional DOFs beyond the minimum number may be included
for an element by adding secondary external nodes. So, the elements with additional DOFs are
called “Higher Order Elements”

The higher order 2D & 3D elements can be classified as two types

(1) Lagrange Elements: have the additional nodes on the element edges as well as within the
element.
(2) Serendipity Elements: have additional nodes only on the element edges and nodes within
the element are absent.

Discretization: Once the suitable element type is chosen, then the given continuum is to be
discretised/meshed. Two factors must be considered in the process of discretization/meshing
are: Number of Elements and Distribution of Elements

Step-2 Selection of Displacement Function

In FEM after we discretize the problem continuum into finite number of elements, we assume
a displacement function for an element which closely represents the expected displacement
variation over the element domain. These simple functions which are assumed to approximate
the displacements for each element are called as “Displacement Models” or “Displacement
Functions” or “Displacement Fields” or “Displacement Patterns”.
Earlier many types of mathematical functions (like trigonometric functions, algebraic
functions, etc.) were assumed for the displacement functions. But presently mathematical
polynomials of a specific order are used to represent the displacement functions.

Reasons for using polynomials for displacement functions:

1. It is easy to handle the mathematics of polynomials in formulating the element equations
and in performing digital computations. Differentiation and integration of such a
polynomial is easy.
2. The solution can attain a particular level of approximation by selecting a particular order
of the polynomial. So a polynomial of infinite order represents an exact solution. Hence,
by truncating the polynomials at different orders, we can vary the solution
approximation.
For example, suppose we want to represent the displacement ‘u’ as a function of ‘’,

Greater the number of terms used in the polynomial, closer will be the solution to the exact
solution.
Convergence:
The Finite Element Analysis is an iterative procedure. We don’t get a solution for a problem
being analyzed by FEM just in one go. We have to perform a number of trials or iterations
and record the solution for each iteration. In each iteration we modify the elements being used
for discretization. We then plot a chart known as “Convergence Chart” which is a plot of
solution on ‘y’ axis and element parameter on the ‘x’ axis. In this chart we see that the FEM
solution curve approaches the actual solution line as we continue with iterations. That is, the
error (difference between the actual solution and FEM solution) continuously decreases. This
is known as Convergence.
The FEM solution curve will finally go asymptotic (parallel) to the actual solution line.
Convergence is defined as the monotonic approach of FEM solution to the exact solution.
Monotonic means, without change in sign or direction.
Methods of attaining Convergence:
There are two methods by which Convergence may be attained.
1. h-method &
2. p-method
h-method of Convergence
In h-method, for each iteration, the number of elements is increased or in other words, the
element size is reduced, i.e., the element mesh fineness increases with iterations. But the order
of the displacement polynomial selected for the polynomial is maintained the same for all
iterations. In the above figure it may be noted that: n1 < n2 < n3 & h1 > h2 > h3.
p-method of Convergence:
In p-method, number of elements and element size are kept constant at suitable values. The
number of nodes per element is increased with iterations. Considering more number of nodes
per element will cause the number of terms in the displacement polynomial as well as order of
the displacement polynomial to increase with iterations. (p stands for polynomial). In the
above figure it may be noted that, p1 < p2 < p3

Convergence Requirementsor Convergence Criteria to be met by

Displacement Functions:
For FEM to give a solution close to the exact solution, the displacement functions assumed
for the elements must satisfy certain requirements (conditions) called “Convergence
Requirements”. The displacement functions should satisfy the following three conditions:

First Requirement: The assumed displacement function should be continuous with in the
elements and the displacements must be compatible between adjacent elements.
Example: Consider a horizontal bar fixed at one end and subjected to an axial point load ‘P’
at the other end. It is required to find the displacement distribution along the length of the bar.
Let it’s FEM model be made up of 3 elements. Then there will be a total of 4 nodes. Let Q1,
Q2, Q3 & Q4 be the global nodal displacements. Since left end is fixed, Q1= 0. Let us
assume that the displacement variation is linear.
According to convergence requirements, the displacement function must be continuous
within each element and compatible between adjacent elements.
Meaning of Continuity:

In the above figure we can understand the difference between continuous and discontinuous
displacement. Dis-continuous displacement occurs if a crack or defect in the bar is present.
Such discrepancies should be properly specified as boundary conditions.
Meaning of Compatibility:
Node 2 is common for element (1) and element (2). If displacement of node 2 for element (1)
= displacement of node 2 for element (2)
i.e., If, q2(1) = q2(2) = Q2, displacement functions of elements (1) & (2) are compatible.
Similarly, if q3(2) = q3(3) = Q3, displacement functions of elements (2) & (3) are compatible.
Second Requirement: The assumed displacement functions should be capable of
representing rigid body displacement of the element. The rigid body displacement is the most
elementary displacement that an element may undergo. i.e., during rigid body displacement
the element should not be strained. Usually, the first term of the assumed displacement
polynomial will be a constant which represents the rigid body displacement.
For example, for a 2D element, the assumed displacement polynomial may be

The first term 1 represents rigid body displacement.

 Third Requirement: The assumed displacement functions should include constant strain
rates of the element. Usually, the second term of the assumed displacement polynomial
function will represent the constant strain rate.
For example, for a 1D 2 noded element,

Note: The elements whose displacement functions satisfy the First Convergence requirement
are said to be Compatible or Confirming Elements.
The elements whose displacement functions satisfy the Second and Third Convergence
requirements are said to be Complete Elements.

How to select the order of the assumed displacement polynomial?

The convergence requirements that
 Rigid body displacement should be represented, and
 Constant strain rates must be represented
This upto some extent decide the order of the displacement polynomial.
An additional consideration in the selection of the polynomial order is that the selected pattern
(polynomial) should be independent of the orientation of the local coordinate system in the
global coordinate system. This property of the displacement function is called “Geometric
Isotropy” or “Spatial Isotropy” or “Geometric Invariance”.
For polynomials of linear order, the “Geometric Isotropy” condition is inherently achieved by
including the constant strain rate. i.e., u 1 2
For polynomials of higher orders, only those higher order coordinates are considered which
satisfy Geometric Isotropy.
The best method to select the higher order coordinates which represent Geometric Isotropy is
to make use of the PASCAL’S TRIANGLE of coordinates. Pascal’s triangle has symmetric
coordinates which take care of Geometric Isotropy.
The Pascal’s Triangle:
Using the Pascal’s Triangle, suppose we want to write the displacement polynomial for a 8
noded quadrilateral element, keeping symmetry in mind, we can include the following terms.

Constant terms 1 One term

Linear terms ,  Two terms
Quadratic terms 2, , 2 Three terms
Cubic terms 2, 2 Two terms
or 3, 3
Total: Eight terms

 u(,) 1  2  3 4  2 5 6 2  7  2 82

OR
u(,) 1  2  3 4  2 5 6 2  7  3 8 3
It can be noted that since there are 8 nodes, the displacement polynomial has 8 terms.

The minimum number of DOFs (number of terms in the displacement polynomial) for a given
element is determined by
 The completeness requirements of convergence
 The requirement of geometrical isotropy
 The necessity of adequate representation of terms in the potential energy functional

By providing additional DOFs, the FEM solution accuracy (nearness to exact solution) can be
improved. Additional DOFs beyond the minimum number may be included for an element by
adding secondary external nodes. So, the elements with additional DOFs are called “Higher
Order Elements” If the displacement polynomials have terms of the order higher than ONE,
such elements represent higher order elements. i.e., if the terms included have 2, 2, 2, 2
and higher, they are called higher order elements.
Following is a table which are the Basic elements (not higher order elements).

Terms of the Pascal’s

Element Displacement Polynomial
triangle used
2 noded 1D element
u = 1+2 1, 
(Linear Element)
3 noded 2D triangular element
u = 1+2+3 1,,
(CST Element)
4 noded 2D quadrilateral element u = 1+2+3+4 1, , , 

Note: Displacement polynomials in the table do not have 2, 2, 2, 2, etc. terms. In the
table the elements are having most minimum number of nodes to represent the basic shape of
the element. Hence, they are known as ‘Basic Elements’.
Shape functions or Interpolation functions:
The Shape Functions (or Interpolation Functions) are mathematical functions which relate
the field variable at any point inside the element to the field variable values at the nodes. In
case of structural problems, the shape functions relate the displacement at any point inside
the element to the nodal displacements. These functions are also used to relate the
geometrical coordinates any point inside the element to the nodal coordinates.
If q1, q2, q3, ………qn are the nodal displacements of the n nodes of an element along a
particular direction, then the displacement ‘q’ at any point inside the element can be obtained
using the Shape functions as follows.
q  N1q1  N 2 q2  N 3 q3  N 4 q4 ............  N n qn
n
i.e., q  N i qi
i1
Similarly, If x1, x2, x3, ………xn are the nodal coordinates of the n nodes of an element, then
the coordinate ‘x’ at any point inside the element can be obtained using the Shape functions
as follows.
x  N1 x1  N 2 x2  N 3 x3  N 4 x4 ............  N n xn
n
i.e., x  N i xi
i1
Also, a property of the shape function that its value is unity at the node at which it is defined
and zero at all other nodes of the element. The summation of the shape functions of all the
nodes of an element is unity.
N1  N 2  N3  N4  ............  Nn  1
n
i.e., Ni 1
i1
Derivation of Shape Function for a 1D linear (2 noded) element:
Horizontal Element:
Consider a 1D linear element with two nodes 1 & 2 oriented parallel to the x axis. Its local
coordinates in terms of  are shown. The length of the element is 2 units. It is having the local
coordinate origin located at its center. Let q1 and q2 be the displacements at the nodes 1 and 2
respectively.

Let the displacement ‘u’ at any point within the element be represented as,
Vertical Element:
For Practice: Q2: Derive the shape function for quadrilateral element by assuming a suitable
displacement function.

Derivation of Shape Function for a 1D quadratic (3 noded) element:

Horizontal Element:
Consider a 1D linear element with three nodes 1, 2 & 3 oriented parallel to the x axis. Its
local coordinates in terms of  are shown. The length of the element is 2 units. It is having the
local coordinate origin located at its center. The third node is located at the origin. Let q1, q2
and q3 be the displacements at the nodes 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
For Practice:
Q1: Derive the shape function for 1D vertical element by assuming a suitable displacement
function.
Problem 2: Derive the shape functions for a 16 noded lagrange quadrilateral element.
Similarly, we can derive the shape functions for 1D 4 noded (cubic) vertical element.

Now shape functions for 16 noded quadrilateral element can be derived by superimposing the
shape functions of cubic 1D bar in horizontal and vertical directions at respect nodes.
Super-parametric elements: These are elements which are different from the iso-parametric
and sub-parametric elements. i.e., higher order functions with larger number of terms are
required to represent geometry. This means, representation of displacement is done by lesser
number of terms and of lower order.
Note: All iso-parametric and sub-parametric elements satisfy the convergence requirements,
whereas only a few super-parametric elements are able to satisfy convergence requirements.

Elements with C0 Continuity: The elements which satisfy the continuity requirement of
assumed displacement function (i.e., translation), but its first derivative (rotation) is
discontinuous such elements are known to be C0 level elements.
Elements with C1 Continuity: The elements which satisfy the continuity requirement of
assumed displacement function and its first derivative (rotation), but the second derivative
(curvature/slope) is discontinuous such elements are known to be C1 level elements.
Elements with C2 Continuity: The elements which satisfy the continuity requirement of
assumed displacement function, its first derivative (rotation), and second derivative
(curvature/slope) such elements are known to be C2 level elements.
Step 3: Define Strain/Displacement and Strain/Stress Relationship
Strain/displacement and stress/strain relationships are necessary for deriving the equations
for each finite element. In the case of one-dimensional deformation, say, in the x direction,
we have strain ex related to displacement u by

for small strains. In addition, the stresses must be related to the strains through the
stress/strain law generally called the constitutive law. The ability to define the material
behavior accurately is most important in obtaining acceptable results. The simplest of
stress/strain laws, Hooke’s law, which is often used in stress analysis, is given by

Step 4: Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix and Equations

Initially, the development of element stiffness matrices and element equations was based on
the concept of stiffness influence coefficients, which presupposes a background in
structural analysis. Now alternative methods available that do not require this special
background. The commonly used methods to derive the element equations are:
Direct Equilibrium Method: According to this method, the stiffness matrix and element
equations relating nodal forces to nodal displacements are obtained using force equilibrium
conditions for a basic element, along with force/deformation relationships. This method is
most easily adaptable to line or one-dimensional elements.
Energy Methods: To develop the stiffness matrix and equations for two- and three-
dimensional elements, it is much easier to apply the principle of minimum potential energy.
Methods of Weighted Residuals: The methods of weighted residuals are useful for
developing the element equations; particularly popular is Galerkin’s method. These methods
yield the same results as the energy methods wherever the energy methods are applicable.
They are especially useful when a functional such as potential energy is not readily available.
The weighted residual methods allow the finite element method to be applied directly to any
differential equation.

Using any of the methods just outlined will produce the equations to describe the behavior
of an element. These equations are written conveniently in matrix form as

or in compact matrix form as

where {f} is the vector of element nodal forces, [k] is the element stiffness matrix
(normally square and symmetric), and {d} is the vector of unknown element nodal degrees
of freedom or generalized displacements, n. Here generalized displacements may include
such quantities as actual displacements, slopes, or even curvatures.
Step 5 Assemble the Element Equations to Obtain the Global Total Equations and
Introduce Boundary Conditions
In this step the individual element nodal equilibrium equations generated in step 4 are
assembled into the global nodal equilibrium equations. Another more direct method of
superposition (called the direct stiffness method), whose basis is nodal force equilibrium, can
be used to obtain the global equations for the whole structure. Implicit in the direct stiffness
method is the concept of continuity, or compatibility, which requires that the structure
remain together and that no tears occur anywhere within the structure.
The final assembled or global equation written in matrix form is
where {F} is the vector of global nodal forces, {K} is the structure global or total stiffness
matrix, (for most problems, the global stiffness matrix is square and symmetric) and {d} is
now the vector of known and unknown structure nodal degrees of freedom or generalized
displacements. It can be shown that at this stage, the global stiffness matrix [K] is a
singular matrix because its determinant is equal to zero. To remove this singularity
problem, we must invoke certain boundary conditions (or constraints or supports) so that
the structure remains in place instead of moving as a rigid body.

Types of Boundary Conditions

In structural problems we normally come across two types of boundary conditions
1. Specified displacement boundary condition
2. Multi point constraint boundary condition
(1) Specified displacement boundary condition:
If the boundary conditions are of the type Q1 = a1, Q2 = a2, Q3 = a3…………Qr = ar
they are called as specified displacement boundary condition. There can be two
types of Specified displacement boundary conditions,
(a) Homogeneous Boundary Condition and
(b) Non- Homogeneous Boundary Condition
If the specified displacement is zero it is called Homogeneous Boundary Condition. In the
figure shown below, the left end of the bar is fixed. So the displacement boundary
condition at the left end is zero. That is, it is a Homogeneous Boundary Condition.

If the specified displacement is non-zero it is called Non-Homogeneous Boundary

Condition. In the figure shown below, the left end of the bar is fixed. So the displacement
boundary condition at the left end is zero. That is, it is a Homogeneous Boundary
Condition. But the right end of the bar is free to displace by a non-zero amount . Hence,
the displacement boundary condition at the left end is a Non-Homogeneous Boundary
Condition.
(2) Multi point constraint boundary condition:
If the boundary conditions are of the type β1Q1+β2Q2 = β0 where β0, β1, β2 are known
constants then they are called as multi point constraints. Multi point constraints are used
for modeling, inclined roller support, rigid connections or shrink fits, etc.

Another way of classifying Boundary Conditions are:

(1) Natural BCs
(2) Essential BCs

In the above figure the loads P & Q are the Natural Boundary conditions, the
specified displacement Q1 = 0 & Q3 =  are the Essential Boundary Conditions.
Methods of handling boundary conditions:
Boundary conditions can be handled by two methods:
1. Elimination approach
2. Penalty method

(1) Elimination approach:

(2) Penalty approach:
 Step 6 Solve for the Unknown Degrees of Freedom (or Generalized Displacements)
Modified to account for the boundary conditions, is a set of simultaneous algebraic equations
that can be written in expanded matrix form as

where now n is the structure total number of unknown nodal degrees of freedom.
These equations can be solved for the ds by using an elimination method (such as
Gauss’s method) or an iterative method (such as the Gauss–Seidel method).

Step 7 Solve for the Element Strains and Stresses

For the structural stress-analysis problem, important secondary quantities of strain and stress
(or moment and shear force) can be obtained because they can be directly expressed in
terms of the displacements determined in step 6. Typical relationships between strain and
displacement and between stress and strain can be used.

Step 8 Interpret the Results

The final goal is to interpret and analyze the results for use in the design/analysis process.
Determination of locations in the structure where large deformations and large stresses occur
is generally important in making design/analysis decisions. Postprocessor computer
programs help the user to interpret the results by displaying them in graph.

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