CVE 151
An introduction to structural systems, focusing on statically determinate structures like
beams, trusses, and frames. Topics include load types and placement, earthquake
and wind load, and applicable codes and specifications. Methods of theory of stress
analysis include elastic deflections and rotations of structures (integration, moment-
area, conjugate beam and virtual work methods), and Castigliano’s theorems. Moving
loads and influence lines; non-planar structures are presented.
BY
ENGR. ELNIE JEAN R. NAVARRO
MODULE 1
(FOR INSTRUCTIONAL PURPOSES ONLY)
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES:
After reading the chapter the students will be able to
1. Explain what structural theory is and define what structure is.
2. Identify various types of structural system or structural forms (i.e. the 3 basic
engineering structures such as beams, frames and trusses), the types of
external supports and types of loads that these structures are subjected to.
3. Calculate the degree of indeterminacy and stability of a given structure such as
beams, trusses and frames.
4. Differentiate between stable and unstable structures.
5. State and use conditions of static equilibrium.
INTRODUCTION:
The word structure has various meanings. By an engineering structure we
mean roughly something constructed or built. The principal structures of concern
to civil engineers are bridges, buildings, walls, dams, towers, shells, canals and
cable structures to name a few, but in this lesson we will focus our studies on the
three basic engineering structures. Such structures are composed are
composed of one or more solid elements so arranged that the whole structure as
well as its components are capable of holding themselves without appreciable
geometric change during loading and unloading.
The design of a structure involves much consideration, among which are
four major objectives that must be satisfied;
1. The structure must meet the performance requirement (utility)
2. The structure must carry the loads safely (safety)
3. The structure should be economical in material, construction, and the overall
cost (economy)
4. The structure should have a good appearance (aesthetic/beauty)
STAGES FOR THE COMPLETE DESIGN OF A STRUCTURE:
1. Developing a general layout. The general layout of the structure is selected
from many possible alternatives for which the structure is to be built. It involves
the choice of structural type, the selection of materials, tentative estimation of
cost based on a reasonable analysis of a preliminary structural design, the
selection of best location for the structure and many other considerations. In
this stage it calls for an engineer with high order of experience, skill, and
imagination.
2. Investigating the Loads. Before starting with a refined structural analysis can
be carried out, it is necessary to determine the loads (dead and live loads) for
which a given structure should be designed.
3. Stress Analysis. To determine the internal forces in various members of the
structure and the displacements at some controlling points, the maximum
stresses (shear, moment, external reactions) once the basic form of the
structure and the applied loads are defined. This is the subject is all about.
4. Selection of Elements. The selection of suitable sizes and shapes of members
and their connection depends on the results of the STRESS
ANALYSIS together with the design provisions of the specifications and codes.
5. Drawing and Detailing. Once the sizes of every member has been
determined, the last stage is the preparation of the complete of working drawing
that includes the detailing, job specification, and the final cost of the structure
for the construction to proceed.
THEORIES OF STRUCTURES CLASSIFIED
1. STATICS VS DYNAMICS
• STATIC LOADS – for ordinary structures, dead load
and snow load that causes no dynamic effect on
structures.
• DYNAMIC LOADS – accelerated moving loads,
earthquake loads, wind gusts or bomb blast
2. PLANE VS SPACE
• No structure is really planar, that is, two-dimensional.
However, structural analyses for beams, trussed
bridges, or rigid frame buildings are usually treated as
plane problems.
• Some structures, such as towers and framing for
domes, the stresses between members not lying in a
plane are interrelated in such a way that the analysis
cannot be simplified in terms of component planar
structures. Such structures must be consideredas
space frameworks under a noncoplanar force
system.
3. LINEAR VS NONLINEAR STRUCTURES
• Linear structure means that a linear relationship is assumed
to exist between the applied loads and the resulting
displacements in a structure
• This assumption is based on the following conditions:
a) The material of the structure is elastic and obeys
Hooke's law at all points and throughout the range of
loading considered.
b) The changes in the geometry of the structure are so
small that they can be neglected when the stresses
are calculated.
• A nonlinear relationship between the applied actions and the
resulting displacements exists under either of two conditions:
a) The material of the structure is inelastic.
b) The material is within the elastic range, but the
geometry of the structure changes significantly during
the application of loads.
• The study of nonlinear behavior of structures includes plastic
analysis of structures and buckling of structures.
4. STATICALLY DETERMINATE VS STATICALLY INDETERMINATE
STRUCTURES.
• statically determinate structure - structural analysis can
be carried out by statics alone
• statically indeterminate structure - solved by the
equations of statics together with the equations furnished by
the geometry of the elastic curve of the structure in linear
analysis.
5. FORCE VS DISPLACEMENT.
• force method - we treat the forces as the basic
unknowns and express the displacements in terms of
forces
• displacement method - we regard the
displacements as the fundamental unknowns and
express the forces in terms of displacements.
THREE MAJOR TYPES OF BASIC STRUCTURES
1. BEAM - a straight member subjected only to
transverse loads. A beam is completely analyzed when the
values of bending moment and shear are determined
2. TRUSS- composed of members connected by
frictionless hinges or pins. The loads on a truss are assumed
to be concentrated at the joints. Each member of a truss is
considered as a two-force member subjected to axial forces
only
3. RIGID FRAME - s built of members connected by rigid
joints capable of resisting moment. Members of a rigid frame,
in general, are subjected to bending moment, shear, and
axial forces.
STABILITY AND DETERMINACY OF THE
THREE BASIC STRUCTURES
BEAM – If a beam is built up without any internal connections (e.g. internal
hinge, roller or link), the entire beam may be considered as one piece of
monolithic rigid body placed on a number of supports, and the question of
the stability and the determinacy of the beam are settled solely by the
number and arrangement of supports.
• If R < 3 + c, the beam is unstable
• If R = 3 + c, the beam is statically determinate provided that no
geometric instability (internal and external) is involved.
• If R > 3 + c, the beam is statically indeterminate and stable.
TRUSS – A truss is composed of a number of members (bars) pinconnected
at their ends so as to form a solid network, usually starting with three
members in the form of a triangle, and mounted on a number of supports.
Loads are acting directly at joints.
• If B + R < 2J, the truss system is unstable
• If B + R = 2J, the truss is statically determinate, provided it is also
stable
• If B + R > 2J, the truss is statically indeterminate
RIGID FRAME – a frame is usually composed of beams and columns rigidly
at their ends.
• If 3B + R < 3J + c, the frame is unstable
• If 3B + R = 3J + c, the frame is statically determinate If
3B + R > 3J + c, the frame is statically indeterminate
ü R is the number of the reactive elements (support reactions)
ü B is the number of members that composed a truss
ü J is the number of joints (including the supports) ü c is the number
of internal connections
= 1 (hinge)
= 2 (roller or a link)
= 0 if no internal connection in a beam or frame.
ü c = n – 1 in frame where n is the number of members connected at
joint.
TYPES OF SUPPORTS And SUPPORT REACTIONS
Structures are either partially or completely restrained so that they
cannot move freely in space. Such restraints are provided by supports that
connect the structure to some stationary body, such as the ground or
another structure. The reactions at the supports are considered part of the
external forces other than the loads on the structure and are to balance the
other external loads in a state of [Link] are generally three
different types of support; the HINGE, the ROLLER, and the FIXED
SUPPORT with a corresponding symbols use to designate the supports.
