There are two operating regions and three possible “biasing” conditions for the

standard Junction Diode and these are:

 1. Zero Bias – No external voltage potential is applied to the PN junction diode.
 2. Reverse Bias – The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve) to the P-type material and
positive, (+ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect of Increasing the
PN junction diode’s width.
 3. Forward Bias – The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve) to the P-type material and
negative, (-ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect of Decreasing the
PN junction diodes width.

Zero Biased Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Zero Bias condition, no external potential energy is applied to
the PN junction. However if the diodes terminals are shorted together, a few holes (majority
carriers) in the P-type material with enough energy to overcome the potential barrier will move
across the junction against this barrier potential. This is known as the “Forward Current” and is
referenced as IF
Likewise, holes generated in the N-type material (minority carriers), find this situation
favourable and move across the junction in the opposite direction. This is known as the
“Reverse Current” and is referenced as IR. This transfer of electrons and holes back and forth
across the PN junction is known as diffusion, as shown below.

Zero Biased PN Junction Diode

The potential barrier that now exists discourages the diffusion of any more majority carriers
across the junction. However, the potential barrier helps minority carriers (few free electrons in
the P-region and few holes in the N-region) to drift across the junction.
Then an “Equilibrium” or balance will be established when the majority carriers are equal and
both moving in opposite directions, so that the net result is zero current flowing in the circuit.
When this occurs the junction is said to be in a state of “Dynamic Equilibrium“.
The minority carriers are constantly generated due to thermal energy so this state of
equilibrium can be broken by raising the temperature of the PN junction causing an increase in
the generation of minority carriers, thereby resulting in an increase in leakage current but an
electric current cannot flow since no circuit has been connected to the PN junction.

Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied to the N-
type material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material.
The positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons towards the positive
electrode and away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also attracted away
from the junction towards the negative electrode.
The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and holes and
presents a high impedance path, almost an insulator. The result is that a high potential barrier
is created thus preventing current from flowing through the semiconductor material.

Increase in the Depletion Layer due to Reverse Bias

This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically zero current
flows through the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage. However, a very
small leakage current does flow through the junction which can be measured in micro-
amperes, ( μA ).
One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is increased to a sufficiently
high enough value, it will cause the diode’s PN junction to overheat and fail due to the
avalanche effect around the junction. This may cause the diode to become shorted and will
result in the flow of maximum circuit current, and this shown as a step downward slope in the
reverse static characteristics curve below.

Reverse Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications in voltage stabilising circuits where a
series limiting resistor is used with the diode to limit this reverse breakdown current to a preset
maximum value thereby producing a fixed voltage output across the diode. These types of
diodes are commonly known as Zener Diodes and are discussed in a later tutorial.

Forward Biased PN Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied to the N-
type material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If this external voltage
becomes greater than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3
volts for germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be overcome and current will start to
flow.
This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction giving
them the energy to cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the opposite
direction towards the junction by the positive voltage. This results in a characteristics curve of
zero current flowing up to this voltage point, called the “knee” on the static curves and then a
high current flow through the diode with little increase in the external voltage as shown below.

Forward Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the depletion layer
becoming very thin and narrow which represents a low impedance path through the junction
thereby allowing high currents to flow. The point at which this sudden increase in current takes
place is represented on the static I-V characteristics curve above as the “knee” point.

Reduction in the Depletion Layer due to Forward Bias

This condition represents the low resistance path through the PN junction allowing very large
currents to flow through the diode with only a small increase in bias voltage. The actual
potential difference across the junction or diode is kept constant by the action of the depletion
layer at approximately 0.3v for germanium and approximately 0.7v for silicon junction diodes.
Since the diode can conduct “infinite” current above this knee point as it effectively becomes a
short circuit, therefore resistors are used in series with the diode to limit its current flow.
Exceeding its maximum forward current specification causes the device to dissipate more
power in the form of heat than it was designed for resulting in a very quick failure of the device.
 Junction Diode Summary
The PN junction region of a Junction Diode has the following important characteristics:
 Semiconductors contain two types of mobile charge carriers, Holes and Electrons.
 The holes are positively charged while the electrons negatively charged.
 A semiconductor may be doped with donor impurities such as Antimony (N-type doping), so
that it contains mobile charges which are primarily electrons.
 A semiconductor may be doped with acceptor impurities such as Boron (P-type doping), so
that it contains mobile charges which are mainly holes.
 The junction region itself has no charge carriers and is known as the depletion region.
 The junction (depletion) region has a physical thickness that varies with the applied voltage.
 When a diode is Zero Biased no external energy source is applied and a natural Potential
Barrier is developed across a depletion layer which is approximately 0.5 to 0.7v for silicon
diodes and approximately 0.3 of a volt for germanium diodes.
 When a junction diode is Forward Biased the thickness of the depletion region reduces and
the diode acts like a short circuit allowing full current to flow.
 When a junction diode is Reverse Biased the thickness of the depletion region increases and
the diode acts like an open circuit blocking any current flow, (only a very small leakage
current).
We have also seen above that the diode is two terminal non-linear device whose I-V
characteristic are polarity dependent as depending upon the polarity of the applied
voltage, VD the diode is either Forward Biased, VD > 0 or Reverse Biased, VD < 0. Either way we
can model these current-voltage characteristics for both an ideal diode and for a real diode.

Junction Diode Ideal and Real Characteristics

 In the next tutorial about diodes, we will look at the small signal diode sometimes called a
switching diode which is used in general electronic circuits. As its name implies, the signal diode
is designed for low-voltage or high frequency signal applications such as in radio or digital
switching circuits.
Signal diodes, such as the 1N4148 only pass very small electrical currents as opposed to the
high-current mains rectification diodes in which silicon diodes are usually used. Also in the next
tutorial we will examine the Signal Diode static current-voltage characteristics curve and
parameters

Diodes are connected inside the circuit in two configurations. These configurations are:
 Series configuration
 Parallel configuration
Both of the connection patterns are widely used and will be discussed in this article in detail
along with diagrams.

Series Configuration
Series connection means a side by side connection. When two components are connected in
series, they have one common junction. The variation of voltage and current in a series
connection is as follows:
 Potential difference across every component is different.
 The current across every component connected in series remains the same.
The same properties also hold true for diodes when they are connected in a series
configuration.

Diode Characteristics in Series Configuration

When connected in series, we observe the following properties to hold true among the diodes:
 Resultant diode’s forward voltage increases.
 Reverse blocking capabilities of diodes are increased in series connection.
Consider two diodes connected in series. The thing to be kept in mind over here is that all the
diodes connected in series won’t have the same characteristics as shown in the graph below.
V-I characteristics show that the diodes have different blocking voltages. In forward biased
state, the voltage drop and the forward current would be same on the diodes. While in the
reverse biased the blocking voltage is different as the diodes have to carry the same leakage
current.
This problem can be solved by connected resistances across every diode. Voltage would be
shared equally; hence the leakage current would differ.

Total leakage current would now be:

Our requirement is:

We know,
 So we get,

Area of Application
A single diode cannot meet higher voltage requirements, unless it is connected in series. So the
major areas of application are:
 HVDC (High voltage direct current) transmission lines.
 Commercial areas where regulated voltage supply is needed.

Parallel configuration
Parallel connection means the components are connected across each other, having two
common points. Current differs across each component while voltage drop is same. When
diodes are connected in parallel, this same trend is observed.

Diode Characteristics in Parallel Configuration

 Current carrying capacity increases.
 No conduction in resultant diode in both sides.
Consider two diodes connected in parallel configuration. Current would be shared among the
two diodes. To make this sharing equal, inductors (with same inductances) are connected.
When current at D1 increases, the voltage drop across L1 increases, generating an opposite
polarity value at L2.
Inductors are used for dynamic conditions. Inductors are usually bulky and expensive and
generate spikes which can cause problems.
 Diodes of same type having same voltage drops can be used for steady state conditions. In this
case, the parallel diodes would have the same reverse blocking voltages. Some precautions are
to be kept in mind while using the diodes with same forward voltage drops, which are:
 The diodes should have same heat sinks.
 They should be cooled equally when necessary.
Negligence would change the temperature of the diodes unequally. This will in turn cause the
forward characteristics to differ which can create problems.

Areas of Application
 High power applications.
 Several diodes connected in parallel can match the desired current rating.

Series and Parallel Connection of Diodes and Thyristors

Parallel connection of thyristors
In parallel thyristor circuit arrangements, homogenous current distribution is required from the
moment of firing and throughout the entire current flow time. For this purpose, steeply rising
trigger pulses of sufficient amplitude, as well as symmetrical line impedances in the main circuit
are needed. When connecting thyristors in parallel, it makes sense to arrange them by smallest
possible forward voltage difference. To take into account any remaining asymmetry, it is
recommended to operate the parallel thyristors with no more than 80 % of the calculated
maximum rated value for mean forward current. It may be necessary to limit the rate of rise of
current in the individual thyristor using chokes.
Series connection of thyristors
To increase the off-state or blocking voltage, thyristors can be connected in series. Here, even
voltage distribution must be ensured - using parallel resistors for blocking and off-state and
using parallel RC elements for commutation. The parallel resistors have to be rated such that
the current that flows through the resistors is 5…10 times the thyristor off-state current in hot
state. To ensure that the thyristor firing is as simultaneous as possible, sufficiently high, steep-
rising trigger pulses are required. The voltage load on each thyristor should be at least 10 %
lower than for individual operation.
Parallel connection of rectifier diodes
Parallel diode circuits must be as symmetrical as possible in order to achieve even current
distribution in the electric circuit (connection point, wiring, and wire length); this will rule out
substantial differences in line impedances. It makes sense to arrange parallel diodes by the
smallest possible difference in forward losses. To take into account any remaining asymmetry, it
is recommended to operate the parallel rectifier diodes with no more than 80% of the
calculated maximum rated value for mean forward current.
Series connection of rectifier diodes
To increase the blocking-state voltage, diodes may be connected in series. Especially when
"many" diodes are connected in series, in most cases homogenous voltage distribution has to
be forced: in blocking-state by using parallel resistors; during commutation using parallel RC.
The parallel resistors have to be rated such that the current that flows through the resistors is
5…10 times the diode blocking-state current in hot state. These measures may not be necessary
in series connected avalanche diodes. The voltage load on each diode should be at least 10%
lower than for individual operation.

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 Steps for using a multimeter in the Diode Test mode.

Call for assistance at 1-888-413-5433

How to test diodes

Digital multimeters can test diodes using one of two methods:

1. Diode Test mode: almost always the best approach.

2. Resistance mode: typically used only if a multimeter is not equipped with a Diode Test
mode.
Note: In some cases it may be necessary to remove one end of the diode from the circuit in
order to test the diode.
 Things to know about the Resistance mode when testing diodes:

 Does not always indicate whether a diode is good or bad.

 Should not be taken when a diode is connected in a circuit since it can produce a false
reading.
 CAN be used to verify a diode is bad in a specific application after a Diode Test indicates a
diode is bad.
A diode is best tested by measuring the voltage drop across the diode when it is forward-
biased. A forward-biased diode acts as a closed switch, permitting current to flow.

A multimeter’s Diode Test mode produces a small voltage between test leads. The multimeter
then displays the voltage drop when the test leads are connected across a diode when forward-
biased. The Diode Test procedure is conducted as follows:

1. Make certain a) all power to the circuit is OFF and b) no voltage exists at the diode. Voltage
may be present in the circuit due to charged capacitors. If so, the capacitors need to be
discharged. Set the multimeter to measure ac or dc voltage as required.
2. Turn the dial (rotary switch) to Diode Test mode ( ). It may share a space on the dial
with another function.
3. Connect the test leads to the diode. Record the measurement displayed.
4. Reverse the test leads. Record the measurement displayed.

Diode test analysis

 A good forward-based diode displays a voltage drop ranging from 0.5 to 0.8 volts for the most
commonly used silicon diodes. Some germanium diodes have a voltage drop ranging from 0.2
to 0.3 V.
 The multimeter displays OL when a good diode is reverse-biased. The OL reading indicates the
diode is functioning as an open switch.
 A bad (opened) diode does not allow current to flow in either direction. A multimeter will
display OL in both directions when the diode is opened.
 A shorted diode has the same voltage drop reading (approximately 0.4 V) in both directions.
A multimeter set to the Resistance mode (Ω) can be used as an additional diode test or, as
mentioned previously, if a multimeter does not include the Diode Test mode.
 A diode is forward-biased when the positive (red) test lead is on the anode and the negative
(black) test lead is on the cathode.

 The forward-biased resistance of a good diode should range from 1000 Ω to 10 MΩ.
 The resistance measurement is high when the diode is forward-biased because current from
the multimeter flows through the diode, causing the high-resistance measurement required
for testing.
A diode is reverse-biased when the positive (red) test lead is on the cathode and the negative
(black) test lead is on the anode.

 The reverse-biased resistance of a good diode displays OL on a multimeter. The diode is bad if
readings are the same in both directions.
Varistor

Metal-oxide varistor manufactured by Siemens &Halske AG.

Traditional varistor schematic symbol. It expresses the diode-like behavior in both directions of
current flow.

Modern varistor schematic symbol.

A varistor is an electronic component with an electrical resistance that varies with the applied
voltage.[1] Also known as a voltage-dependent resistor (VDR), it has a nonlinear, non-
ohmic current–voltage characteristic that is similar to that of a diode. In contrast to a diode
however, it has the same characteristic for both directions of traversing current. At low voltage
it has a high electrical resistance which decreases as the voltage is raised.
Varistors are used as control or compensation elements in circuits either to provide optimal
operating conditions or to protect against excessive transient voltages. When used as
protection devices, they shunt(PARALLEL) the current created by the excessive voltage away
from sensitive components when triggered.
The development of the varistor, form of a new type of rectifier (copper oxide), originated in
the work by L.O. Grondahl and P.H. Geiger in 1927.[2] The name varistor is
a portmanteau of varying resistor. The term is only used for non-ohmic varying
resistors. Variable resistors, such as the potentiometer and the rheostat,
have ohmic characteristics.
 Contents

Varistor current-voltage characteristics for zinc oxide (ZnO) and silicon carbide (SiC) devices

The most common type of varistor is the metal-oxide varistor (MOV). This type contains
a ceramic mass of zinc oxide grains, in a matrix of other metal oxides (such as small amounts of
bismuth, cobalt, manganese) sandwiched between two metal plates (the electrodes). The
boundary between each grain and its neighbour forms a diode junction, which allows current to
flow in only one direction. The mass of randomly oriented grains is electrically equivalent to a
network of back-to-back diode pairs, each pair in parallel with many other pairs. [3]When a small
or moderate voltage is applied across the electrodes, only a tiny current flows, caused by
reverse leakage through the diode junctions. When a large voltage is applied, the diode junction
breaks down due to a combination of thermionic emission and electron tunneling, and a large
current flows. The result of this behaviour is a highly nonlinear current-voltage characteristic, in
which the MOV has a high resistance at low voltages and a low resistance at high voltages.

Electrical characteristics[edit]
A varistor remains non-conductive as a shunt-mode device during normal operation when the
voltage across it remains well below its "clamping voltage", thus varistors are typically used for
suppressing line voltage surges. Varistors can fail for either of two reasons.
A catastrophic failure occurs from not successfully limiting a very large surge from an event like
a lightning strike, where the energy involved is many orders of magnitude greater than the
varistor can handle. Follow-through current resulting from a strike may melt, burn, or even
vaporize the varistor. This thermal runaway is due to a lack of conformity in individual grain-
boundary junctions, which leads to the failure of dominant current paths under thermal stress
when the energy in a transient pulse (normally measured in joules) is too high (i.e. significantly
exceeds the manufacture's "Absolute Maximum Ratings"). The probability of catastrophic
failure can be reduced by increasing the rating, or using specially selected MOVs in parallel. [4]
Cumulative degradation occurs as more surges happen. For historical reasons, many MOVs
have been incorrectly specified allowing frequent swells to also degrade capacity. [5] In this
condition the varistor is not visibly damaged and outwardly appears functional (no catastrophic
failure), but it no longer offers protection.[6] Eventually, it proceeds into a shorted circuit
condition as the energy discharges create a conductive channel through the oxides.
The main parameter affecting varistor life expectancy is its energy (Joule) rating. Increasing the
energy rating raises the number of (defined maximum size) transient pulses that it can
accommodate exponentially as well as the cumulative sum of energy from clamping lesser
pulses. As these pulses occur, the "clamping voltage" it provides during each event decreases,
and a varistor is typically deemed to be functionally degraded when its "clamping voltage" has
changed by 10%. Manufacturer's life-expectancy charts relate current, severity and number of
transients to make failure predictions based on the total energy dissipated over the life of the
part.
Note that in consumer electronics, particularly surge protectors, the MOV varistor size
employed is small enough that eventually failure is expected.[7] Other applications, such as
power transmission, use VDRs of different construction in multiple configurations engineered
for survivability.[8]

High voltage varistor

Applications[edit]
To protect telecommunication lines, transient suppression devices such as 3 mil carbon blocks
(IEEE C62.32), ultra-low capacitance varistors, and avalanche diodes are used. For higher
frequencies, such as radio communication equipment, a gas discharge tube (GDT) may be
utilized.[citation needed] A typical surge protector power strip is built using MOVs. Low-cost versions
may use only one varistor, from the hot (live, active) to the neutral conductor. A better
protector contains at least three varistors; one across each of the three pairs of conductors. In
the United States, a power strip protector should have an Underwriters Laboratories (UL) 1449
3rd edition approval so that catastrophic MOV failure does not create a fire hazard. [9][10]

Specifications[edit]
Voltage rating[edit]
MOVs are specified according to the voltage range that they can tolerate without damage.
Other important parameters are the varistor's energy rating in joules, operating voltage,
response time, maximum current, and breakdown (clamping) voltage. Energy rating is often
defined using standardized transients such as 8/20 microseconds or 10/1000 microseconds,
where 8 microseconds is the transient's front time and 20 microseconds is the time to half
value.
Response time[edit]
The response time of the MOV is not standardized. The sub-nanosecond MOV response claim is
based on the material's intrinsic response time, but will be slowed down by other factors such
as the inductance of component leads and the mounting method. That response time is also
qualified as insignificant when compared to a transient having an 8 µs rise-time, thereby
allowing ample time for the device to slowly turn-on. When subjected to a very fast, <1 ns rise-
time transient, response times for the MOV are in the 40–60 ns range.[11]
Capacitance[edit]
Typical capacitance for consumer-sized (7–20 mm diameter) varistors are in the range of 100–
2,500 pF. Smaller, lower-capacitance varistors are available with capacitance of ~1 pF for
microelectronic protection, such as in cellular phones. These low-capacitance varistors are,
however, unable to withstand large surge currents simply due to their compact PCB-mount size.

Hazards[edit]
While a MOV is designed to conduct significant power for very short durations (about 8 to 20
microseconds), such as caused by lightning strikes, it typically does not have the capacity to
conduct sustained energy. Under normal utility voltage conditions, this is not a problem.
However, certain types of faults on the utility power grid can result in sustained over-voltage
conditions. Examples include a loss of a neutral conductor or shorted lines on the high voltage
system. Application of sustained over-voltage to a MOV can cause high dissipation, potentially
resulting in the MOV device catching fire. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) has
documented many cases of catastrophic fires that have been caused by MOV devices in surge
suppressors, and has issued bulletins on the issue.[citation needed]
A 130 volt, 150 J MOV that has undergone catastrophic failure, apparently as a result of a
lightning strike, showing evidence of heat and smoke. The 3 amp fast-blow fuse immediately in
front of the varistor blew during the same event.

A series connected thermal fuse is one solution to catastrophic MOV failure. Varistors with
internal thermal protection are also available.
There are several issues to be noted regarding behavior of transient voltage surge
suppressors (TVSS) incorporating MOVs under over-voltage conditions. Depending on the level
of conducted current, dissipated heat may be insufficient to cause failure, but may degrade the
MOV device and reduce its life expectancy. If excessive current is conducted by a MOV, it may
fail catastrophically, keeping the load connected, but now without any surge protection. A user
may have no indication when the surge suppressor has failed. Under the right conditions of
over-voltage and line impedance, it may be possible to cause the MOV to burst into flames,
[12]
the root cause of many fires[13] and the main reason for NFPA’s concern resulting in UL1449
in 1986 and subsequent revisions in 1998 and 2009. Properly designed TVSS devices must not
fail catastrophically, resulting in the opening of a thermal fuse or something equivalent that
only disconnects MOV devices.

Limitations[edit]
A MOV inside a TVSS device does not provide equipment with complete power protection. In
particular, a MOV device provides no protection for the connected equipment from sustained
over-voltages that may result in damage to that equipment as well as to the protector device.
Other sustained and harmful overvoltages may be lower and therefore ignored by a MOV
device.
A varistor provides no equipment protection from inrush current surges (during equipment
startup), from overcurrent (created by a short circuit), or from voltage sags (also known as
a brownout); it neither senses nor affects such events. Susceptibility of electronic equipment to
these other power disturbances is defined by other aspects of the system design, either inside
the equipment itself or externally by means such as a UPS, a voltage regulator or a surge
protector with built-in overvoltage protection (which typically consists of a voltage-sensing
circuit and a relay for disconnecting the AC input when the voltage reaches a danger threshold).

Comparison to other transient suppressors[edit]

Another method for suppressing voltage spikes is the transient-voltage-suppression
diode (TVS). Although diodes do not have as much capacity to conduct large surges as MOVs,
diodes are not degraded by smaller surges and can be implemented with a lower "clamping
voltage". MOVs degrade from repeated exposure to surges[14] and generally have a higher
"clamping voltage" so that leakage does not degrade the MOV. Both types are available over a
wide range of voltages. MOVs tend to be more suitable for higher voltages, because they can
conduct the higher associated energies at less cost.[15]
Another type of transient suppressor is the gas-tube suppressor. This is a type of spark gap that
may use air or an inert gas mixture and often, a small amount of radioactive material such as Ni-
63, to provide a more consistent breakdown voltage and reduce response time. Unfortunately,
these devices may have higher breakdown voltages and longer response times than varistors.
However, they can handle significantly higher fault currents and withstand multiple high-
voltage hits (for example, from lightning) without significant degradation.

Multi-layer varistor[edit]
Multi-layer varistor (MLV) devices provide electrostatic discharge protection to electronic
circuits from low to medium energy transients in sensitive equipment operating at 0-120 volts
dc. They have peak current ratings from about 20 to 500 amperes, and peak energy ratings
from 0.05 to 2.5 joules.[citation needed]

Photodiode
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Photodiode

Three Si and one Ge (top) photodiodes.

Type Passive
 Working principle Converts light into current

Pin configuration anode and cathode

Electronic symbol

I-V characteristic of a photodiode. The linear load lines represent the response of the external
circuit: I=(Applied bias voltage-Diode voltage)/Total resistance. The points of intersection with
the curves represent the actual current and voltage for a given bias, resistance and illumination.
A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light into current. The current is generated when
photons are absorbed in the photodiode. A small amount of current is also produced when no light is
present. Photodiodes may contain optical filters, built-in lenses, and may have large or small surface
areas. Photodiodes usually have a slower response time as their surface area increases. The common,
traditional solar cell used to generate electric solar power is a large area photodiode.
Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be either exposed (to
detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical fiberconnection to allow light to
reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes designed for use specifically as a photodiode use
a PIN junction rather than a p–n junction, to increase the speed of response. A photodiode is designed
to operate in reverse bias.[1]

Principle of operation[edit]
A photodiode is a p–n junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient energy strikes the diode, it
creates an electron-hole pair. This mechanism is also known as the inner photoelectric effect. If the
absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one diffusion length away from it, these carriers
are swept from the junction by the built-in electric field of the depletion region. Thus holes move toward
theanode, and electrons toward the cathode, and a photocurrent is produced. The total current through
the photodiode is the sum of the dark current (current that is generated in the absence of light) and the
photocurrent, so the dark current must be minimized to maximize the sensitivity of the device. [2]
Photovoltaic mode[edit]
When used in zero bias or photovoltaic mode, the flow of photocurrent out of the device is restricted
and a voltage builds up. This mode exploits the photovoltaic effect, which is the basis for solar cells – a
traditional solar cell is just a large area photodiode.
Photoconductive mode[edit]
In this mode the diode is often reverse biased (with the cathode driven positive with respect to the
anode). This reduces the response time because the additional reverse bias increases the width of the
depletion layer, which decreases the junction's capacitance. The reverse bias also increases the dark
current without much change in the photocurrent. For a given spectral distribution, the photocurrent is
linearly proportional to the illuminance (and to the irradiance).[3]
Although this mode is faster, the photoconductive mode tends to exhibit more electronic noise. [4] The
leakage current of a good PIN diode is so low (<1 nA) that the Johnson–Nyquist noise of the load
resistance in a typical circuit often dominates.
Other modes of operation[edit]
Avalanche photodiodes are photodiodes with structure optimized for operating with high reverse
bias, approaching the reverse breakdown voltage. This allows each photo-generated carrier to be
multiplied by avalanche breakdown, resulting in internal gain within the photodiode, which increases
the effective responsivity of the device.

Electronic symbol for a phototransistor

A phototransistor is a light-sensitive transistor. A common type of phototransistor, called a photobipolar
transistor, is in essence a bipolar transistor encased in a transparent case so that light can reach
the base–collector junction. It was invented by Dr. John N. Shive (more famous for his wave machine) at
Bell Labs in 1948,[5]:205 but it was not announced until 1950.[6] The electrons that are generated by
photons in the base–collector junction are injected into the base, and this photodiode current is
amplified by the transistor's current gain β (or hfe). If the base and collector leads are used and the
emitter is left unconnected, the phototransistor becomes a photodiode. While phototransistors have a
higher responsivity for light they are not able to detect low levels of light any better than photodiodes.
[citation needed]
Phototransistors also have significantly longer response times. Field-effect phototransistors,
also known as photoFETs, are light-sensitive field-effect transistors. Unlike photobipolar transistors,
photoFETs control drain-source current by creating a gate voltage.
Materials[edit]
The material used to make a photodiode is critical to defining its properties, because only photons with
sufficient energy to exciteelectrons across the material's bandgap will produce significant photocurrents.
Materials commonly used to produce photodiodes include:[7]

Electromagnetic spectrum
Material
wavelength range (nm)

Silicon 190–1100

Germanium 400–1700

Indium gallium arsenide 800–2600

Lead(II) sulfide <1000–3500

Mercury cadmium telluride 400–14000

Because of their greater bandgap, silicon-based photodiodes generate less noise than germanium-based
photodiodes.
Unwanted photodiode effects[edit]
Any p–n junction, if illuminated, is potentially a photodiode. Semiconductor devices such as diodes,
transistors and ICs contain p–n junctions, and will not function correctly if they are illuminated by
unwanted electromagnetic radiation (light) of wavelength suitable to produce a photocurrent; [8][9] this is
avoided by encapsulating devices in opaque housings. If these housings are not completely opaque to
high-energy radiation (ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays), diodes, transistors and ICs can
malfunction[10] due to induced photo-currents. Background radiation from the packaging is also
significant.[11] Radiation hardening mitigates these effects.
In some cases, the effect is actually wanted, for example to use LEDs as light-sensitive devices (see LED
as light sensor) or even forenergy harvesting, then sometimes called light-emitting and -absorbing
diodes (LEADs).[12]

Features[edit]
Response of a silicon photo diode vs wavelength of the incident light

Critical performance parameters of a photodiode include:

Responsivity
The Spectral responsivity is a ratio of the generated photocurrent to incident light power,
expressed in A/W when used in photoconductive mode. The wavelength-dependence may also
be expressed as a Quantum efficiency, or the ratio of the number of photogenerated carriers to
incident photons, a unitless quantity.
Dark current
The current through the photodiode in the absence of light, when it is operated in
photoconductive mode. The dark current includes photocurrent generated by background
radiation and the saturation current of the semiconductor junction. Dark current must be
accounted for by calibration if a photodiode is used to make an accurate optical power
measurement, and it is also a source of noise when a photodiode is used in an optical
communication system.
Response time
A photon absorbed by the semiconducting material will generate an electron-hole pair which
will in turn start moving in the material under the effect of the electric field and thus generate
a current. The finite duration of this current is known as the transit-time spread and can be
evaluated by using Ramo's theorem. One can also show with this theorem that the total charge
generated in the external circuit is well e and not 2e as might seem by the presence of the two
carriers. Indeed, the integral of the current due to both electron and hole over time must be
equal to e. The resistance and capacitance of the photodiode and the external circuitry give rise

to another response time known as RC time constant . This combination of R and C

integrates the photoresponse over time and thus lengthens the impulse response of the
photodiode. When used in an optical communication system, the response time determines the
bandwidth available for signal modulation and thus data transmission.
Noise-equivalent power
(NEP) The minimum input optical power to generate photocurrent, equal to the rms noise
current in a 1 hertz bandwidth. NEP is essentially the minimum detectable power. The related
characteristic detectivity is the inverse of NEP, 1/NEP. There is also the specific detectivity (

) which is the detectivity multiplied by the square root of the area ( ) of the

photodetector, ( ) for a 1 Hz bandwidth. The specific detectivity allows different

systems to be compared independent of sensor area and system bandwidth; a higher detectivity

value indicates a low-noise device or system.[13] Although it is traditional to give ( ) in

many catalogues as a measure of the diode's quality, in practice, it is hardly ever the key
parameter.
When a photodiode is used in an optical communication system, all these parameters
contribute to the sensitivity of the optical receiver, which is the minimum input power
required for the receiver to achieve a specified bit error rate.

Applications[edit]
P–n photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photodetectors, such
as photoconductors, charge-coupled devices, andphotomultiplier tubes. They may be
used to generate an output which is dependent upon the illumination (analog; for
measurement and the like), or to change the state of circuitry (digital; either for control
and switching, or digital signal processing).
Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact
disc players, smoke detectors, and the receivers for infraredremote control
devices used to control equipment from televisions to air conditioners. For many
applications either photodiodes or photoconductors may be used. Either type of
photosensor may be used for light measurement, as in camera light meters, or to
respond to light levels, as in switching on street lighting after dark.
Photosensors of all types may be used to respond to incident light, or to a source of
light which is part of the same circuit or system. A photodiode is often combined into a
single component with an emitter of light, usually a light-emitting diode (LED), either to
detect the presence of a mechanical obstruction to the beam (slotted optical switch),
or to couple two digital or analog circuits while maintaining extremely high electrical
isolation between them, often for safety (optocoupler). The combination of LED and
photodiode is also used in many sensor systems to characterize different types of
products based on their optical absorbance.
Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in science and
industry. They generally have a more linear response than photoconductors.
They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors
for computed tomography (coupled with scintillators), instruments to analyze samples
(immunoassay), and pulse oximeters.
PIN diodes are much faster and more sensitive than p–n junction diodes, and hence are
often used for optical communications and in lighting regulation.
 P–n photodiodes are not used to measure extremely low light intensities. Instead, if
high sensitivity is needed, avalanche photodiodes,intensified charge-coupled
devices or photomultiplier tubes are used for applications such
as astronomy, spectroscopy, night vision equipment and laser rangefinding.

Pinned photodiode is not a PIN photodiode, it has p+/n/p regions in it. It has a shallow
P+ implant in N type diffusion layer over a P-type epitaxial substrate layer. It is used in
CMOS Active pixel sensor.[14]

PIN diode
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Layers of a PIN diode

A PIN diode is a diode with a wide, undoped intrinsic semiconductor region between a p-type
semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor region. The p-type and n-type regions are typically
heavily doped because they are used for ohmic contacts.

Varicap

Internal structure of a varicap

 Type Passive

Pin configuration anode and cathode

Electronic symbol

In electronics, a varicap diode, varactor diode, variable capacitance diode, variable reactance
diode or tuning diode is a type of diode designed to exploit the voltage-
dependent capacitance of a reversed-biased p–n junction.[1]

Applications[edit]
Varactors are used as voltage-controlled capacitors. They are commonly used in voltage-
controlled oscillators, parametric amplifiers, and frequency multipliers.[2] Voltage-controlled
oscillators have many applications such as frequency modulation for FM transmitters
and phase-locked loops. Phase-locked loops are used for the frequency synthesizers that tune
many radios, television sets, andcellular telephones.
The varicap was developed by the Pacific Semiconductor subsidiary of the Ramo Wooldridge
Corporation who received a patent for the device in June 1961.[3] The device name was also
trademarked as the "Varicap" by TRW Semiconductors, the successor to Pacific
Semiconductors, in October 1967. This helps explain the different names for the device as it
came into use.[clarification needed]
Operation[edit]

Operation of a varicap. Holesare blue, electrons are red,depletion zone is white. The electrodes
are at the top and bottom.

Varactors are operated in a reverse-biased state, so no DC current flows through the device.
The amount of reverse bias controls the thickness of the depletion zone and therefore the
varactor's junction capacitance. Generally, the depletion region thickness is proportional to
the square root of the applied voltage, and capacitance is inversely proportional to the
depletion region thickness. Thus, the capacitance is inversely proportional to the square root of
applied voltage.
All diodes exhibit this variable junction capacitance, but varactors are manufactured to exploit
the effect and increase the capacitance variation.
The figure shows an example of a cross section of a varactor with the depletion layer formed of
a p–n junction. This depletion layer can also be made of a MOS or a Schottky diode. This is
important inCMOS and MMIC technology.

Use in a circuit[edit]
Tuning circuits[edit]
Generally the use of a varicap diode in a circuit requires connecting it to a tuned circuit, usually
in parallel with any existing capacitance or inductance.[4] Because a DC voltage must be applied
reverse bias across the varicap to alter its capacitance, this must be blocked from entering the
tuned circuit. This is accomplished by placing a DC blocking capacitor with a capacitance about
100 times greater than the maximum capacitance of the varicap diode in series with it and
applying the DC from a high impedance source to the node between the varicap cathode and
the blocking capacitor as shown in the upper left hand diagram, right.
Varicap circuits

Since no significant DC current flows in the varicap, the value of the resistor connecting its
cathode back to the DC control voltage can be somewhere in the range of 22 kΩ to 150 kΩ and
the blocking capacitor somewhere in the range of 5-100 nF. Sometimes, with very high-Q tuned
circuits, an inductor is placed in series with the resistor to increase the source impedance of the
control voltage so as not to load the tuned circuit and decrease its Q.
A second circuit using two back-to-back (anode-to-anode), series-connected varicap diodes
(shown lower-left in the image) is another common configuration. The second varicap
effectively replaces the blocking capacitor in the first circuit. This reduces the overall
capacitance and the capacitance range by half, but possesses the advantage of reducing the AC
component of voltage across each device and symmetrical distortion should the AC component
possess enough amplitude to bias the varicaps into forward conduction.
When designing tuning circuits with varicaps it is usually good practice to maintain the AC
component of voltage across the varicap at a minimal level, usually less than 100 mV peak to
peak, to prevent this changing the capacitance of the diode too much and thus distorting the
signal and adding harmonics to it.
One remaining circuit, right, depicts two series connected varicaps being used in a circuit with
separate DC and AC signal ground connections. The DC ground being depicted as the traditional
ground symbol, and the AC ground being depicted as a triangle. Separation of grounds is often
done to prevent high-frequency radiation from the low-frequency ground node or DC currents
in the AC ground node upsetting biasing and operating points of active devices such as varicaps
and transistors.
These circuit configurations are quite common in television tuners and electronically tuned
broadcast AM and FM receivers, as well as other communications equipment and industrial
equipment. Early varicap diodes usually required a reverse voltage range of 0–33 v to obtain
capacitance range, which was quite small, approximately 1–10 pF. These types were and are
still extensively used in television tuners, whose high carrier frequencies require only small
changes in capacitance.
In time, varicap diodes were developed which exhibited very large capacitance ranges, 100–500
pF, with relatively small changes in reverse bias: 0–5 or 0–12 v. These newer devices allow
electronically tuned AM broadcast receivers to be realized as well as a multitude of other
functions requiring large capacitance changes at lower frequencies, generally below 10 MHz.
Some of designs of electronic security tag readers used in retail outlets require these high
capacitance varicaps in their voltage-controlled oscillators.
Australian market band I-III-U television tuner with varicaps highlighted

Consumer AM-FM broadcast tuner with varicaps highlighted

The three leaded devices depicted at the top of the page are generally two common cathode
connected varicaps in a single package. In the consumer AM/FM tuner depicted at the right, a
single dual-package varicap diode adjusts both the passband of the tank circuit (the main
station selector), and the local oscillator with a single varicap for each. This is done to keep
costs down – two dual packages could have been used, one for the tank and one for the
oscillator, four diodes in all, and this was what was depicted in the application data for the
LA1851N AM radio chip. Two lower-capacitance dual varactors are used in the FM section
which operates at a frequency about one hundred time greater and are highlighted by red
arrows. In this case four diodes are used, one dual package each for the tank/bandpass filter
and the local oscillator.
Special types of varicap diode exhibiting an abrupt change in capacitance can often be found in
consumer equipment such as television tuners, which are used to switch radio frequency signal
paths. When in the high capacitance state, usually with low or no bias, they present a low
impedance path to RF, whereas when reverse biased their capacitance abruptly decreases and
their RF impedance increases. Although they are still slightly conductive to the RF path, the
attenuation they introduce decreases the unwanted signal to an acceptably low level. They are
often used in pairs to switch between two different RF sources such as the VHF and UHF bands
in a television tuner by supplying them with complementary bias voltages. The fourth device
from the left in the picture at the head of this page is one such device.

Harmonic multiplication[edit]
In some applications, such as harmonic multiplication, a large signal amplitude alternating
voltage is applied across a varicap to deliberately vary the capacitance at signal rate to generate
higher harmonics, which are extracted through filtering. If a sine wave current of sufficient
amplitude is applied driven through a varicap, the resultant voltage gets "peaked" into a more
triangular shape, and odd harmonics are generated.
This was one early method used to generate microwave frequencies of moderate power, 1–
2 GHz at 1–5 watts, from about 20 watts at a frequency of 3–400 MHz before adequate
transistors had been developed to operate at this higher frequency. This technique is still used
to generate much higher frequencies, in the 100 GHz – 1 THz range, where even the fastest
GaAs transistors are still inadequate.

Substitutes for varicap diodes[edit]

Experimentation with the varicap effect need not remain in the realms of advanced electronics
or solid state physics labs. All semiconductor junction devices exhibit the effect, some to a
surprising degree. Although many common devices exhibit the effect, they are not designed for
that purpose so the effect can vary widely between one batch of a certain device and another.
The Philips BA 102 varicap and a common rectifier diode, the 1N5408, exhibit similar changes in
junction capacitance, with the exception that the BA 102 possesses a specified set of
characteristics in relation to junction capacitance (whereas the 1N5408 does not) and
the "Q" of the 1N5408 is less. However individual 1N5408s can be tested for their suitability for
use as varicaps prior to insertion into a circuit. Both the specific devices exhibit a reduction in
capacitance from around 110 pF at 0 V bias to 60pF at −5 V bias. The voltage-capacitance
relationship of the 1N5408 is quite different from that of the BA 102, and it is quite easy to
forward bias the 1N5408, so the amplitude of the applied AC must be maintained below
200 mV peak. Placing multiple devices in parallel will multiply the effect by the number of
devices used, so three 1N5408s will vary in total capacitance from around 180 pF at −5 V bias to
330 pF at 0 V bias.
Popular makeshift varicaps include LEDs,[5] 1N400X series rectifier diodes,[6] Schottky rectifiers
and various transistors used with their collector-base junctions reverse biased, [7] particularly
the 2N2222 and BC547.[clarification needed] Reverse biasing the emitter-base junctions of transistors
also is quite effective as long as the AC amplitude remains small. Higher-current devices with
greater junction area tend to possess higher capacitance.
Before the development of the varicap, motor driven variable capacitors or saturable-core
reactors were used as electrically controllable reactances in the VCOs and filters of equipment
like World War II German spectrum analyzers.