UNIT I

Data communications refers to the transmission of digital data between two or more computers. The
physical connection between networked computing devices is established using either cable media or
wireless media. For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a
communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software
(programs). The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental
characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.

Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the intended
device or user

Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in transmission and
left uncorrected or unusable.

Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data that have been altered are useless

Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of audio or
video packets.

Components:
1. A data communications system has five components.

Introduction to Data Communications:

A data communications system has five components:

1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of

information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, television, and so on.
 4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire,
coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves
5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a
person who speaks only Japanese.

Direction of Data Flow

Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only oneof the
two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive. The simplex mode can use the entire
capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.

Half-Duplex: In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa The half-duplex mode is like a
one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions.

Full-Duplex: In full-duplex both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously .Thefull-duplex mode
is like a way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time. In full-duplex mode, signals
going in one direction share the capacity of the link: with signals going in the other direction.

NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A node can
be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other
nodes on the network.

Distributed Processing
Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided among multiple computers. Instead
of one single large machine being responsible for all aspects of a process, separate computers (usually a
personal computer or workstation) handle a subset.

Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are
performance, reliability, and security.

Performance:
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time. Transit time is the
amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to
another.

Reliability:
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time it
takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's robustness

Security:
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data from damage
and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.

Type of Connection A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a
communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another.
For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in some way to the same link at the same
time. There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.

Point-to-Point A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire
capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-point
connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as
microwave or satellite links, are also possible

Multipoint A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two specific
devices share a single link. In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either
spatiallyor temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared
connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.
Physical Topology The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out
physically. One or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology of a
network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually
called nodes) to one another. There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring

Mesh: In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device. The
term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects. To find the
number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n nodes, we first consider that each node
must be connected to every other node. Node 1 must be connected to n - I nodes, node 2 must be
connected to n – 1 nodes, and finally node n must be connected to n - 1 nodes. We need n(n - 1) physical
links. However, if each physical link allows communication in both directions (duplex mode), we can
divide the number of links by 2. In other words, we can say that in a mesh topology, we need n(n -1) /2
duplex-mode links.

Advantages: 1. The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load,
thus eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links must be shared by multiple devices.
2. A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the entire system.
Third, there is the advantage of privacy or security. When every message travels along a dedicated line,
only the intended recipient sees it. Physical boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to
messages.
Star Topology: In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh
topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as an
exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays
the data to the other connected device .
One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the
hub. If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead. Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh,
each node must be linked to a central hub. For this reason, often more cabling is required in a star than in
some other topologies (such as ring or bus).

Bus Topology: The preceding examples all describe point-to-point connections. A bus topology, on the
other hand, is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network
Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection running between
the device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the
sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core. As a signal travels along the backbone,
some of its energy is transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther
and farther. For this reason there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support and
on the distance between those taps.

Advantages of a bus topology include ease of installation. Backbone cable can be laid along the most
efficient path, then connected to the nodes by drop lines of various lengths. In this way, a bus uses less
cabling than mesh or star topologies.
 Ring Topology In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only
the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to
device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a
device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes
them along.

A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to only its immediate neighbors
(either physically or logically). To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections. The
only constraints are media and traffic considerations (maximum ring length and number of devices).

Hybrid Topology A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main star topology with
each branch connecting several stations in a bus topology as shown in Figure
 Categories of Network

Local area networks, generally called LANs, are privately-owned networks within a single building
or campus of up to a few kilometres in size. They are widely used to connect personal computers and
workstations in company offices and factories to share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange
information. LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by three characteristics:
(1) Their size,
(2) Their transmission technology, and
(3) Their topology.

LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case transmission time is bounded and known in
advance. Knowing this bound makes it possible to use certain kinds of designs that would not otherwise
be possible. It also simplifies network management. LANs may use a transmission technology consisting
of a cable to which all the machines are attached, like the telephone company party lines once used in
rural areas. Traditional LANs run at speeds of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps, have low delay (microseconds or
nanoseconds), and make very few errors. Newer LANs operate at up to 10 Gbps Various topologies are
possible for broadcast LANs.

Metropolitan Area Network:

A metropolitan area network, or MAN, covers a city. The best-known example of a MAN is the cable
television network available in many cities. This system grew from earlier community antenna systems
used in areas with poor over-the-air television reception. In these early systems, a large antenna was
placed on top of a nearby hill and signal was then piped to the subscribers' houses. At first, these were
locally-designed, ad hoc systems. Then companies began jumping into the business, getting contracts
from city governments to wire up an entire city.

Wide Area Network:

A wide area network, or WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a country or continent. It
contains a collection of machines intended for running user (i.e., application) programs. These
machines are called as hosts. The hosts are connected by a communication subnet, or just subnet for
short. The hosts are owned by the customers (e.g., people's personal computers), whereas the
communication subnet is typically owned and operated by a telephone company or Internet service
provider. The job of the subnet is to carry messages from host to host, just as the telephone system
carries words from speaker to listener.

Protocols and Standards

In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in different systems. An entity is
anything capable of sending or receiving information. However, two entities cannot simply send bit
streams to each other and expect to be understood. For communication to occur, the entities must
agree on a protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. A protocol
 defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated. The key
elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.

o Syntax. The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order
in which they are presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data to
be the address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver, and the rest of the
stream to be the message itself.
o Semantics. The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a
particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that interpretation?
For example, does an address identify the route to be taken or the final destination of the message?
o Timing. The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how
fast they can be sent. For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can
process data at only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver and some data will be
lost.
Standards
Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and competitive market for
equipment manufacturers and in guaranteeing national and international interoperability of data and
telecommunications technology and processes. Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers,
vendors, government agencies, and other service providers to ensure the kind of interconnectivity
necessary in today's marketplace and in international communications.
Data communication standards fall into two categories: de facto (meaning "by fact" or "by
convention") and de jure (meaning "by law" or "by regulation").
o De facto. Standards that have not been approved by an organized body but have been
adopted as standards through widespread use are de facto standards. De facto standards are often
established originally by manufacturers who seek to define the functionality of a new product or
technology.
o De jure. Those standards that have been legislated by an officially recognized body are de
jure standards.

Networking hardware
Networking hardware, also known as network equipment or computer networking devices, are
electronic devices which are required for communication and interaction between devices on a computer
network.

Network software

Network software encompasses a broad range of software used for design, implementation, and operation
and monitoring of computer networks. Traditional networks were hardware based with software
embedded. With the advent of Software Defined Networking (SDN), software is separated from the
hardware thus making it more adaptable to the ever-changing nature of the computer network.

Functions of Network Software

• Helps to set up and install computer networks

• Enables users to have access to network resources in a seamless manner
• Allows administrations to add or remove users from the network
• Helps to define locations of data storage and allows users to access that data
• Helps administrators and security system to protect the network from data breaches, unauthorized
access and attacks on a network
• Enables network virtualizations

Layering Scenario

THE OSI MODEL

Open Systems Interconnection Basic Reference Model (OSI Reference Model or OSI Model) is an
abstract description for layered communications and computer network protocol design. It was developed
as part of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) initiative. In its most basic form, it divides network
architecture into seven layers which, from top to bottom, are the Application, Presentation, Session,
Transport, Network, Data-Link, and Physical Layers. It is therefore often referred to as the OSI
Seven Layer Model.

1. Physical layer

• One of the major function of the physical layer is to move data in the form of
electromagnetic signals across a transmission medium.
• Its responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop (Node) to next.
• Both data and the signals can be either analog or digital.
• [Link] media work by conducting energy along a physical path which can be wired or
wireless

Concerned:
• Physical characteristics of interface and medium :The physical layer defines the characteristics
of the interface between the devices and the transmission medium.
• Representation of bits: The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of Os or
1s) with no interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals—electrical.
• Data rate: The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also defined by the
physical layer
• Synchronization of bits: The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate but also
must be synchronized at the bit level
• Line configuration: The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the media.
In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected through a dedicated link. In a
multipoint configuration, a link is shared among several devices.
• Physical topology: The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a network.
• Transmission mode: The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between two
devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.

2. Data link layer

This is responsible for moving frames from one hop (Node) to the next.
Concerned:
• Framing: The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into
manageable data units called frames.
• Physical addressing: If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the data
link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame
• Flow Control: If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate at
which data are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism.
• Error Control: The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms to
detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames.
• Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer
protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given time

3. Network layer
This layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source
host to the destination host.

Concerned:
• Logical addressing: The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer
that, among other things, includes the logical addresses of the sender and receiver
• Routing When independent networks or links are connected to create intemetworks (network of
networks) or a large network, the connecting devices (called routers or switches) route or switch
the packets to their final destination.

4. Transport layer
The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from
one process to another

Concerned:
• Service-point addressing The transport layer header must include a type of address called a
service-point address (or port address). The network layer gets each packet to the correct
computer.
• Segmentation and reassembly: A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each
segment containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble
the message correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify and replace packets that
were lost in transmission.

• Connection control The transport layer can be either connectionless or connectionoriented. A

connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet and delivers it to the
transport layer at the destination machine. A connectionoriented transport layer makes a
connection with the transport layer at the destination
• Flow control: the transport layer is responsible for flow control. However, flow control at this
layer is performed end to end rather than across a single link
• Error Control: Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error control.
However, error control at this layer is performed process-toprocess rather than across a single
link.

5. Session layer
The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization

Concerned:
 • Dialog Control:The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It
allows the communication between two processes to take place in either
halfduplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode.

• Synchronization: The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or synChronization

points, to a stream of data.

6. Presentation layer

The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression and encryption

Concerned:
• Translation The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging information
in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on.
• Encryption To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy. Encryption
means that the sender transforms the original information to another form and sends the resulting
message out over the network.
• Compression: Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information

[Link] layer

The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.

Concerned:
• Network virtual terminal. A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical terminal,
and it allows a user to log on to a remote [Link] transfer, access and management
• File transfer, access, and management. This application allows a user to access files in a
remote host (to make changes or read data), to retrieve files from a remote computer for
use in the local computer, and to manage or control files in a remote computer locally.
• Mail services. This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.
• Directory services. This application provides distributed database sources and access
for global information about various objects and services.

TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol suite of protocol form the basis of the internet. It is
TCP/IP that creates a virtual network when multiple computer networks are connected together. The
TCP/IP networks was earlier known as ARPANET, but is now known as internet.
TCP/IP Suite consists of Four layer

Network Interface: - It include the function of physical layer and data link layer. TCP/IP protocol suite
includes Host-to-network layer protocols such as Serial Line internet protocol and point to point protocol.

Internet Layer: - The internet layer is exactly same to the network layer of OSI model. IP is the primary
protocol operating at this layer and it provides data encapsulation routing, addressing and fragmentation
services to the protocols at the transport layer above it.

Transport Layer: - TCP/IP Suite includes two protocol at this layer, the transmission control protocol
and the user datagram protocol These protocol provides connection or connectionless data transfer
services.

Application layer: - The TCP/IP protocol at the application layer can take different forms of Protocols,
such as the File Transfer Protocol, Hypertext Transfer Protocol.

TCPI/IP and OSI model

Application Layer The application layer in TCPIIP is equivalent to the combined session, presentation,
and application layers in the OSI model

SMTP. Stands for "Simple Mail Transfer Protocol." This is the protocol used for sending e-mail over the
Internet.

FTP File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard Internet protocol for transmitting files between computers
on the Internet over TCP/IP connections

The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an application-level protocol for distributed, collaborative,
hypermedia information systems.
The Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical and decentralized naming system for computers,
services, or other resources connected to the Internet or a private network.

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an Internet Standard protocol for collecting and
organizing information about managed devices on IP networks.

Telnet is an application protocol used on the Internet or local area network to provide a bidirectional
interactive text-oriented communication facility using a virtual terminal connection

Transport Layer

Traditionally the transport layer was represented in TCP/IP by two protocols: TCP and UDP. IP is a host-
to-host protocol, meaning that it can deliver a packet from one physical device to another.

Stream Control Transmission Protocol The Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) provides
support for newer applications such as voice over the Internet. It is a transport layer protocol that
combines the best features of UDP and TCP.

The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides full transport-layer services to applications. TCP is
a reliable stream transport protocol. The term stream, in this context, means connection-oriented.

User Datagram Protocol The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is the simpler ofthe two standard TCPIIP
transport protocols. It is a process-to-process protocol that adds only port addresses, checksum error
control, and length information to the data from the upper layer.

Network Layer

At the network layer (or, more accurately, the internetwork layer), TCP/IP supports the Internetworking
Protocol. IP, in turn, uses four supporting protocols: ARP, RARP, ICMP, and IGMP.

Internet Control Message Protocol The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a mechanism used
by hosts and gateways to send notification of datagram problems back to the sender. ICMP sends query
and error reporting messages

Internet Group Message Protocol The Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) is used to facilitate the
simultaneous transmission of a message to a group of recipients.

Internetworking Protocol (IP) The Internetworking Protocol (IP) is the transmission mechanism used by
the TCP/IP protocols. It is an unreliable and connectionless protocol-a best-effort delivery service.

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) allows a host
to discover its Internet address when it knows only its physical address. It is used when a computer is
connected to a network for the first time or when a diskless computer is booted.

Address Resolution Protocol The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to associate a logical
address with a physical address. On a typical physical network, such as a LAN, each device on a link is
identified by a physical or station address, usually imprinted on the network interface card (NIC).

Physical and Data Link Layers

At the physical and data link layers, TCPIIP does not define any specific protocol. It supports all the
standard and proprietary protocols. A network in a TCPIIP internetwork can be a local-area network or a
wide-area network.

ADDRESSING
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing the TCP/IP protocols:
physical (link) addresses, logical (IP) addresses, port addresses, and specific
addresses.

Physical Address /MAC Address :

A MAC address is a one-of-a-kind identification assigned to a NIC (Network Interface

Controller/Card). The full form of MAC address is Media Access Control address. MAC addresses are
48 bits long and these addresses could not be routed between networks. MAC Address is a 12 digit
hexadecimal numeral which is most typically expressed with a colon or hyphen separating every two
digits (an octet), making reading easier. MAC Addresses are used at the Data Link Layer.

IP Address /Logical Address

An Internet Protocol address is an IP address. It is a unique address that identifies the device on the
network. The Internet Service Provider (ISP) assigns IP addresses to all devices on its network. IP
addresses are not generated at random. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), a part of the
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), generates and assigns them
mathematically . IP addresses are used at the network layer. IP Addresses are routable in nature.

Port Address

Port addressing refers to using the port numbers assigned to every process to exchange data between
them. Now, for processes that send and receive data over the internet, the following information must be
assigned to every process:

• The IP address: We use this to uniquely identify the machines that run the processes over the
internet.
• The port address (port number): We use this to identify the processes uniquely on a machine.
This number can range from 0–65535.

Specific Addresses

Some applications have user-friendly addresses that are designed for that specific address.
Examples include the e-mail address (for example, forouzan@[Link]) and the Universal
Resource Locator (URL) (for example, [Link]). The first defines the recipient of
an e-mail the second is used to find a document on the World Wide Web. These addresses,
however, get changed to the corresponding port and logical addresses by the sending computer,
INTERNET
 The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily lives. It has affected the way we do
business as well as the way we spend our leisure time. Count the ways you've used the Internet
recently. Perhaps you've sent electronic mail (e-mail) to a business associate, paid a utility bill, read
a newspaper from a distant city, or looked up a local movie schedule-all by using the Internet. Or
maybe you researched a medical topic, booked a hotel reservation, chatted with a fellow Trekkie, or
comparison-shopped for a car. The Internet is a communication system that has brought a wealth of
information to our fingertips and organized it for our use.
A Brief History

A network is a group of connected communicating devices such as computers and printers. An

internet (note the lowercase letter i) is two or more networks that can communicate with each other.
The most notable internet is called the Internet (uppercase letter I), a collaboration of more than
hundreds of thousands of interconnected networks. Private individuals as well as various
organizations such as government agencies, schools, research facilities, corporations, and libraries
in more than 100 countries use the Internet.
In the mid-1960s, mainframe computers in research organizations were standalone devices.
Computers from different manufacturers were unable to communicate with one another. The
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the Department of Defense (DoD) was
interested in finding a way to connect computers so that the researchers they funded could share their
findings, thereby reducing costs and eliminating duplication of effort.

In 1967, at an Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) meeting, ARPA presented its ideas for
ARPANET, a small network of connected computers. The idea was that each host computer (not
necessarily from the same manufacturer) would be attached to a specialized computer, called an
inteiface message processor (IMP). The IMPs, in tum, would be connected to one another.

In 1972, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, both of whom were part of the core ARPANET group,
collaborated on what they called the Internetting Projec1. Cerf and Kahn's landmark 1973 paper
outlined the protocols to achieve end-to-end delivery of packets. This paper on Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) included concepts such as encapsulation, the datagram, and the functions of a
gateway. Shortly thereafter, authorities made a decision to split TCP into two protocols:
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internetworking Protocol (lP).
The Internet Today

The Internet has come a long way since the 1960s. The Internet today is not a simple hierarchical
structure. It is made up of many wide- and local-area networks joined by connecting devices and
switching stations.

Today most end users who want Internet connection use the services of Internet service providers (lSPs).
There are international service providers, national service providers, regional service providersand local
service providers. The Internet today is run by private companies, not the government.

International Internet Service Providers At the top of the hierarchy are the international service
providers that connect nations together.

National Internet Service Providers The national Internet service providers are backbone networks
created and maintained by specialized companies.

Regional Internet Service Providers Regional internet service providers or regional ISPs are smaller
ISPs that are connected to one or more national ISPs.

Local Internet Service Providers Local Internet service providers provide direct service to the end
users. The local ISPs can be connected to regional ISPs or directly to national ISPs.

ARPANET
This may be considered as the breakthrough for many of current ideas, algorithms
and Internet technologies. It started Paul Baran in 1960s funded by Advanced Research Projects
Agency (ARPA), an organization of the united States Defense Department and, therefore, named
as Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) predecessor of the modern Internet. It
was world’s first fully operational packet switching computer network and the world’s first
successful computer network to implement the TCP/IP reference model that was used earlier by
ARPANET, before being used in the Internet. The ARPANET is the first network that planed the seed of
interent.

ARPANET was built to accommodate research equipment on packet switching technology and to allow
resource sharing for the Department of Defense’s contractors. The network interconnected research
centers, some military bases and government locations. It soon became popular with researchers for
collaboration through electronic mail and other services.
Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model

Following are the differences between OSI and TCP/IP Reference Model −
OSI TCP/IP
OSI represents Open System Interconnection. TCP/IP model represents the Transmission Control
Protocol / Internet Protocol.
OSI is a generic, protocol independent standard. It TCP/IP model depends on standard protocols
is acting as an interaction gateway between the about which the computer network has created. It
network and the final-user. is a connection protocol that assigns the network
of hosts over the internet.
The OSI model was developed first, and then The protocols were created first and then built the
protocols were created to fit the network TCP/IP model.
architecture’s needs.
It provides quality services. It does not provide quality services.
The OSI model represents defines administration, It does not mention the services, interfaces, and
interfaces and conventions. It describes clearly protocols.
which layer provides services.
The protocols of the OSI model are better unseen The TCP/IP model protocols are not hidden, and
and can be returned with another appropriate we cannot fit a new protocol stack in it.
protocol quickly.
It is difficult as distinguished to TCP/IP. It is simpler than OSI.
It provides both connection and connectionless It provides connectionless transmission in the
oriented transmission in the network layer; network layer and supports connecting and
however, only connection-oriented transmission connectionless-oriented transmission in the
in the transport layer. transport layer.
It uses a horizontal approach. It uses a vertical approach.
The smallest size of the OSI header is 5 bytes. The smallest size of the TCP/IP header is 20 bytes.
Protocols are unknown in the OSI model and are In TCP/IP, returning protocol is not difficult.
returned while the technology modifies.
Transmission Media

Guided Media It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted. It is also
known as Bounded media.

Guided Media− In guided media, transmitted data travels through cabling system that has a fixed path.
For example, copper wires, fibre optic wires, etc.

Types Of Guided media:

The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the number of turns per foot. Increasing
the number of turns per foot decreases noise interference.

Types of Twisted pair:

Unshielded Twisted Pair:

An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. Following are the categories of the
unshielded twisted pair cable:

o Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
o Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
o Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.
o Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-distance
communication.
o Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.

Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

o It is cheap.
o Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
o It can be used for high-speed LAN.

Disadvantage:

o This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.

Shielded Twisted Pair

A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that allows the higher
transmission rate.

Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:

o The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.
o An installation of STP is easy.
 o It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
o It has a higher attenuation.
o It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.

Disadvantages

o It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.

o It has a higher attenuation rate.

Coaxial Cable
o Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is usually a
coaxial cable.
o The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each other.
o It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
o The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer conductor is made
up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-conductive cover that separates the inner
conductor from the outer conductor.
o The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh prevents from
the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).

Coaxial cable is of two types:

1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at high speed.
2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals
simultaneously.

Advantages Of Coaxial cable:

o The data can be transmitted at high speed.

o It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
o It provides higher bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:

 o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.

Fibre Optic
o Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
o Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that are used to send the data
by pulses of light.
o The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold, electromagnetic interference from
other types of wiring.
o Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.

Diagrammatic representation of fibre optic cable:

Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:

o Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a core. A core is a
light transmission area of the fibre. The more the area of the core, the more light will be
transmitted into the fibre.
o Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main functionality of the
cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core interface as to cause the reflection
within the core so that the light waves are transmitted through the fibre.
o Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The main purpose of a
jacket is to preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and extra fibre protection.
Unguided Media − In unguided media, transmitted data travels through free space in form of
electromagnetic signal. For example, radio waves, lasers, etc

Infrared
Low frequency infrared waves are used for very short distance communication like TV remote, wireless
speakers, automatic doors, hand held devices etc. Infrared signals can propagate within a room but
cannot penetrate walls. However, due to such short range, it is considered to be one of the most secure
transmission modes.
Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly aligned with
each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height of the antenna.
Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile phone communication and
television distribution

Radio Wave
Transmission of data using radio frequencies is called radio-wave transmission. We all are familiar
with radio channels that broadcast entertainment programs. Radio stations transmit radio waves
using transmitters, which are received by the receiver installed in our devices.
Both transmitters and receivers use antennas to radiate or capture radio signals. These radio frequencies
can also be used for direct voice communication within the allocated range. This range is usually 10
miles.