Tab 1

Republic of the Philippines

RIZAL TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
Cities of Mandaluyong and Pasig
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

SCI112: Waves and Optics

Written Report: Waves

Group 1
Adangna, Marjhea
Bangcaya, Mariel Joy
Barrios, Miriam Nicole
Bouzanne, Danissah Louise
Constantino, Cristina Shane
Dawe, James
De Castro, Russel Angelo
Delantes, Marvin
Sales, Kristine Joy
Tagaro, Russel

Submitted to:
Dr. Rizaldy E. Garcia

June 2025
Wave is defined as the propagation of disturbances from place to place in a regular
and organized way. It is a physical phenomenon characterized by its frequency,
wavelength, and amplitude.

Amplitude: The amplitude of a wave is a measure of the displacement of the wave

from its rest position. It is a measure of the strength or intensity of the wave.
Wavelength: Wavelength is the distance between two identical points (adjacent
crests or troughs).

When you pluck a guitar string, the resulting sound has a steady tone and
lasts a long time. The string vibrates around an equilibrium position, and one
oscillation is completed when the string starts from the initial position, travels to one
of the extreme positions, then to the other extreme position, and returns to its initial
position. We define periodic motion to be any motion that repeats itself at regular
time intervals, such as exhibited by the guitar string or by a child swinging on a
swing. In this section, we study the basic characteristics of oscillations and their
mathematical description.

When a guitar string is plucked, the string oscillates up and down in periodic motion.
The vibrating string causes the surrounding air molecules to oscillate, producing
sound waves.
1.1 Simple Harmonic Motion: Elastic Spring and Simple Pendulum
In the absence of friction, the time to complete one oscillation remains
constant and is called the period (T). Its units are usually seconds, but may be any
convenient unit of time. The word ‘period’ refers to the time for some event whether
repetitive or not, but in this chapter, we shall deal primarily in periodic motion, which
is by definition repetitive.
A concept closely related to period is the frequency of an event. Frequency (f)
is defined to be the number of events per unit time. For periodic motion, frequency is
the number of oscillations per unit time. The relationship between frequency and
period is f = 1/T.
The SI unit for frequency is the hertz (Hz) and is defined as one cycle per second.
A cycle is one complete oscillation.
Elastic Spring
When an object is oscillating, the displacement of that object varies
sinusoidally with time. Simple Harmonic Motion describes this oscillatory motion
where the displacement, velocity and acceleration are sinusoidal. Examples include
Elastic Springs and Simple Pendulums. All simple harmonic motions are related to
sine and cosine waves.
A good example of SHM is an object with mass m attached to a spring on a
frictionless surface. The object oscillates around the equilibrium position, and the net
force on the object is equal to the force provided by the spring. This force obeys
Hooke’s law Fs=−kx.
If the net force can be described by Hooke’s law and there is no damping
(slowing down due to friction or other nonconservative forces), then a simple
harmonic oscillator oscillates with equal displacement on either side of the
equilibrium position. The maximum displacement from equilibrium is called the
amplitude (A). The units for amplitude and displacement are the same but depend on
the type of oscillation. For the object on the spring, the units of amplitude and
displacement are meters.
 An object attached to a spring sliding on a frictionless surface is an
uncomplicated simple harmonic oscillator. In the above set of figures, a mass is
attached to a spring and placed on a frictionless table. The other end of the spring is
attached to the wall. The position of the mass, when the spring is neither stretched
nor compressed, is marked as x=0 and is the equilibrium position.
(a) The mass is displaced to a position x=A and released from rest.
(b) The mass accelerates as it moves in the negative x-direction, reaching a
maximum negative velocity at x=0.
(c) The mass continues to move in the negative x-direction, slowing until it comes to
a stop at x=−A.
(d) The mass now begins to accelerate in the positive x-direction, reaching a positive
maximum velocity at x=0.
(e) The mass then continues to move in the positive direction until it stops at x=A.
The mass continues in SHM that has an amplitude A and a period T. The
object’s maximum speed occurs as it passes through equilibrium. The stiffer the
spring is, the smaller the period T. The greater the mass of the object is, the greater
the period T.

Consider a block attached to a spring on a frictionless table. The equilibrium

position (the position where the spring is neither stretched nor compressed) is
marked as x=0. At the equilibrium position, the net force is zero.

A block is attached to a spring and placed on a frictionless table. The

equilibrium position, where the spring is neither extended nor compressed, is marked
as x=0.
Work is done on the block to pull it out to a position of
x=+A, and it is then released from rest. The maximum
x-position (A) is called the amplitude of the motion. The
block begins to oscillate in SHM between x=+A and
x=−A,where A is the amplitude of the motion and T is the
period of the oscillation. The period is the time for one
oscillation. When the position is plotted versus time, it is
clear that the data can be modeled by a cosine function
with an amplitude A and a period T. The cosine function
cosθ repeats every multiple of 2π, whereas the motion of the block repeats every
period T. However, the function cos((2π/T)t) repeats every integer multiple of the
period. The maximum of the cosine function is one, so it is necessary to multiply the
cosine function by the amplitude A.

Function for Position: 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(ω𝑡)

2π
𝑇

△𝑥 𝑉(𝑡) =− 𝐴ω𝑠𝑖𝑛ω𝑡
Velocity: 𝑉 = △𝑡

𝑑𝑥 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴ω
𝑉 = 𝑑𝑡

△𝑣 𝑑𝑥
Acceleration: 𝑎 = △𝑡
𝑎= 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣 2
𝑎= 𝑑𝑡 𝑎(𝑡) =− 𝐴ω 𝑐𝑜𝑠ω𝑡
2
𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴ω

Newtons Law and Hookes Equation

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑘 2
𝑎 =− 𝑚
𝐴 =− 𝐴ω
𝐹 =− 𝑘𝑥
𝑘
ω= 𝑚
𝑚𝑎 =− 𝑘𝑥
𝑘
𝑎 =− 𝑚
𝑥

Period (T) of Oscillation

𝑇=
2π Frequency
ω
1 2π
𝑚
𝑓= 𝑇
= ω
𝑇 = 2π 𝑘
1 𝑘
𝑓= 2π 𝑚

Angular Frequency

ω = 2π𝑓

Sample Problems
1. A horizontal spring (K=300 N/m) with a mass of 0.75kg attached to it is undergoing
simple harmonic motion. Calculate the (a) period, (b) frequency, and (c) angular
frequency of this oscillator?
Given: k = 300 N/m m = 0.75kg
Ask: T=? f=? ω =?

𝑚 1
Formula: 𝑇 = 2π 𝑘
𝑓= 𝑇
ω = 2π𝑓

Solution/Computation:

𝑚 1
𝑇 = 2π 𝑘
𝑓= 𝑇
ω = 2π𝑓

0.75 𝑘𝑔 1
𝑇 = 2π 300 𝑁/𝑚
𝑓= 0.3142 𝑠
ω = 2π (3. 18 𝐻𝑧)

𝑇 = 0. 31 𝑠 𝑓 = 3. 18 𝐻𝑧 ω = 20 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠

Implications:
a. The period of a horizontal spring (K=300 N/m) with a mass of 0.75kg attached to it
is 0.31s.
b. The frequency of a horizontal spring (K=300 N/m) with a mass of 0.75kg attached
to it is 3.18 Hz.
c. The angular frequency of a horizontal spring (K=300 N/m) with a mass of 0.75kg
attached to it is 20 rad/s.

2. A force of 500N is used to stretch a spring with a 0.5kg mass attached to it by

0.35m. (a) What is the value of the spring constant? (b) Calculate the frequency of
the oscillator?
Given: F = 500N m = 0.5kg x = 0.35m
Ask: k =? f =?

1 𝑘
Formula: F = kx 𝑓= 2π 𝑚

Solution:

1 𝑘
F = kx 𝑓= 2π 𝑚

1 1428.6 𝑁/𝑚
k = F/x 𝑓= 2π 0.5 𝑘𝑔

k = 500 N/ 0.35 m 𝑓 = 8. 51 𝐻𝑧

k = 1428.6 N/m
Implications:
a. A force of 500N is used to stretch a spring with a 0.5kg mass attached to it by
0.35m has a spring constant of 1428.6 N/m.
b. A force of 500N is used to stretch a spring with a 0.5kg mass attached to it by
0.35m has a frequency of 8.51 Hz.

3. A 0.75 kg mass vibrates according to the equation X = 0.65 cos (7.35t). Determine
the (a) amplitude, (b) frequency, (c) period, and the (d) spring constant.
Given: m = 0.75 kg Equation: x = 0.65cos(7.35t)
Ask: A =? f =? t =? d =?

1 1 𝑘
Formula: 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(ω𝑡) ω = 2π𝑓 𝑇= 𝑓
𝑓= 2π 𝑚

ω 1 𝑘
2π
= 𝑓 (2π)𝑓 = 2π 𝑚
(2π)

2
2
(2π𝑓) = ( ) 𝑘
𝑚

2 𝑘
(𝑚)(2π𝑓) = 𝑚
(𝑚)

2
𝑘 = 𝑚ω

Solution:
A = 0.65 m w = 7.35 rad/s
ω 1 2
𝑓= 2π
𝑇= 𝑓
𝑘 = 𝑚ω

7.35 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 1 2
𝑓= 2π
𝑇= 1.17 𝐻𝑧
𝑘 = (0. 75 𝑘𝑔)(7. 35)

𝑓 = 1. 17 𝐻𝑧 𝑇 = 0. 86 𝑠 𝑘 = 40. 5 𝑁/𝑚

Implications:
a. A 0.75 kg mass vibrates according to the equation X = 0.65 cos (7.35t) and has an
amplitude of 0.65 m.
b. A 0.75 kg mass vibrates according to the equation X = 0.65 cos (7.35t) and has a
frequency of 1.17 Hz.
c. A 0.75 kg mass vibrates according to the equation X = 0.65 cos (7.35t) and has a
period of 0.86 s.
d. A 0.75 kg mass vibrates according to the equation X = 0.65 cos (7.35t) and has
the spring constant of 40.5 N/m.

Simple Pendulum
A simple pendulum has a small-diameter bob and a
string that has a very small mass but is strong enough not to
stretch. The linear displacement from equilibrium is s, the
length of the arc. Also shown are the forces on the bob, which
result in a net force of −mg sinθ toward the equilibrium
position—that is, a restoring force.
Everyday examples of pendulums include old-fashioned
clocks, a child’s swing, or the sinker on a fishing line. For small
displacements of less than 15 degrees, a pendulum
experiences simple harmonic oscillation, meaning that its
restoring force is directly proportional to its displacement. A pendulum in simple
harmonic motion is called a simple pendulum. A pendulum has an object with a small
mass, also known as the pendulum bob, which hangs from a light wire or string. The
equilibrium position for a pendulum is where the angle θ is zero (that is, when the
pendulum is hanging straight down). It makes sense that without any force applied,
this is where the pendulum bob would rest.
The displacement of the pendulum bob is the arc length s. The weight mg has
components mg cos θ along the string and mg sin θ tangent to the arc. Tension in
the string exactly cancels the component mg cos θ parallel to the string. This leaves
a net restoring force back toward the equilibrium position that runs tangent to the arc
and equals −mg sin θ.
For small angle oscillations of a simple pendulum, the period is ​
𝐿
𝑇 = 2π 𝑔

The only things that affect the period of a simple pendulum are its length and
the acceleration due to gravity. The period is completely independent of other
factors, such as mass or amplitude. However, note that T does depend on g.

We begin by defining the displacement to be the arc length s. We see from

Figure 1 that the net force on the bob is tangent to the arc and equals −mg sinθ.
(The weight mg has components mg cosθ along the string and mg sinθ tangent to
the arc.) Tension in the string exactly cancels the component mg cosθ parallel to the
string. This leaves a net restoring force back toward the equilibrium position at θ = 0.

Now, if we can show that the restoring force is directly proportional to the
displacement, then we have a simple harmonic oscillator. In trying to determine if we
have a simple harmonic oscillator, we should note that for small angles (less than
about 15º), sinθ ≈ θ (sinθ and θ differ by about 1% or less at smaller angles). Thus,
for angles less than about 15º, the restoring force F is

F ≈ −mgθ.

The displacement s is directly proportional to θ. When θ is expressed in radians, the

arc length in a circle is related to its radius (L in this instance) by s = Lθ, so that

𝑠
θ= 𝐿

For small angles, then, the expression for the restoring force is:
𝑚𝑔
𝐹≈ − 𝐿
𝑠

This expression is of the form: F = −kx, where the force constant is given by k=mg/L

and the displacement is given by x = s. For angles less than about 15º, the restoring
force is directly proportional to the displacement, and the simple pendulum is a
simple harmonic oscillator.

Using this equation, we can find the period of a pendulum for amplitudes less than
about 15º. For the simple pendulum:

𝑚 𝑚
𝑇 = 2π 𝑘
= 2π 𝑚𝑔
𝐿

𝐿
Thus, 𝑇 = 2π 𝑔
for the period of a simple pendulum. This result is
interesting because of its simplicity. The only things that affect the period of a simple
pendulum are its length and the acceleration due to gravity. The period is completely
independent of other factors, such as mass. As with simple harmonic oscillators, the
period T for a pendulum is nearly independent of amplitude, especially if θ is less
than about 15º. Even simple pendulum clocks can be finely adjusted and accurate.

Sample Problems from [Link]

1. What is the period and frequency of a simple pendulum that is 70cm long on the
Earth and on the Moon?
Given: l = 70 cm or 0.70 m Earth gravity = 9.8 m/s2 Moon gravity = 1.6 m/s2
Ask: T on Earth =?, f on Earth =?, T on Moon =?, f on Moon =?
 𝐿 1
Formula: 𝑇 = 2π 𝑔
𝑓= 𝑇

Solution:
On Earth

On Moon

Implications:
●​ On earth, the period is 1.68s and the frequency is 0.60Hz of a simple
pendulum that is 70cm long
●​ On moon, the period is 4.16s and the frequency is 0.24Hz of a simple
pendulum that is 70cm long

2. What is the acceleration due to gravity in a region where a simple pendulum

having a length 75.000 cm has a period of 1.7357 s?
Given: l = 75 cm or 0.75 m T = 1.7357
Ask: g =?
Formula: T = 2π√(L/g)
T = 2π√(L/g)
g = 4π²L / T²
Solution: g = 4π² × 0.75000 m / (1.7357 s)²
g = 9.8281 m/s²
Implication: The acceleration due to gravity in a region where a simple pendulum
having a length 75.000 cm has a period of 1.7357 s is 9.83 m/s2.
3. What is the length of a simple pendulum used in a grandfather clock that has one
second between its tick and its tock on Earth?
Given: T = 2s g = 9.8 m/s2
Ask: l =?

𝐿
Formula: 𝑇 = 2π 𝑔
Solution:

𝑇 𝐿
2π
= 𝑔

𝑇 2
( )
2π
=
𝐿
𝑔

2
𝑔𝑇
2 = 𝐿
4π

Implication: The length of a simple pendulum used in a grandfather clock that has
one second between its tick and its tock on Earth is 0.99 m.

Elastic Spring Applications:

Elastic springs, which follow Hooke’s Law, are widely used in systems where
force and displacement are related linearly. In the real world, they appear in car
suspension systems to absorb shocks and provide a smooth ride, and in mechanical
clocks and watches to regulate time through periodic motion. Spring scales utilize
elastic springs to measure force or weight based on how much the spring stretches.
Other applications include mattresses and trampolines that compress and expand
under load, exercise equipment that uses spring tension for resistance, and
seismometers that detect ground vibrations using mass-spring systems. These
systems all rely on the principles of simple harmonic motion for consistent,
repeatable behavior.

Simple Pendulum Applications:

Simple pendulums are commonly used in timing and motion-based systems
due to their predictable oscillatory behavior. Grandfather clocks and metronomes use
pendulums to keep accurate time by swinging at a constant period determined by
their length. In playgrounds, swing sets demonstrate simple pendulum motion during
play. Pendulum rides in amusement parks also operate based on this motion for
entertainment. In science and engineering, Foucault pendulums show Earth’s
rotation, while pendulum-based seismometers record ground motion during
earthquakes. Additionally, tall buildings sometimes incorporate pendulum-like tuned
mass dampers to reduce swaying caused by wind or seismic activity. These
applications harness the natural periodicity of pendulums for both practical and
educational purposes.

1.2 Mechanical Waves

Mechanical waves are connected to a type of motion called periodic motion,

which means an object moves back and forth repeatedly in the same way. A swing, a
pendulum, or a ball bouncing on waves are good examples. When this
back-and-forth motion repeats in a smooth, regular way, it is called simple
harmonic motion, which is important in physics.

Mechanical waves are made when something vibrates or oscillates like in

simple harmonic motion. For example:

●​ In sound waves, air particles move back and forth.​

●​ In water waves, water moves up and down.​

●​ In seismic waves during an earthquake, the ground vibrates.​

These movements happen in cycles, meaning the particles of the material

(like air or water) move in a repeated way as the wave travels through them. So, the
repeating motion of mechanical waves is like the motion of a swinging
pendulum or a spring. That’s why understanding simple harmonic motion helps us
understand how mechanical waves work.

Mechanical waves is a disturbance or oscillation that travels through matter

(medium), transferring energy from one point to another that rely on particles in a
medium to transport their energy.

A movement in a substance that conveys energy through a material.

Examples of mechanical waves are water waves, sound waves, and earthquake
waves. These waves also possess a frequency, the count of waves that pass by per
second, and a wavelength, which refers to the distance between consecutive peaks
or troughs.

Types of Waves

1. Transverse Waves

-​ Transverse waves are those waves in which the particles of the

medium move perpendicular to the direction of the propagation of the
 wave. For example, ripples formed on the surface of the water are

transverse waves.

2. Longitudinal Waves

-​ Longitudinal waves are those waves in which the particles of the

medium move parallel to the propagation of the wave. For example,
sound waves are longitudinal waves.

Mechanical Wave Applications:

Due to the capacity of transmitting energy with the help of a medium,

mechanical waves find their wide application both in daily activities and in scientific
practices. In the process of communication, the speech and hearing process can be
transmitted through airwaves, the sound through the sound waves. musical
instruments such as guitars, drums, violins produce sound by means of vibrating
strings or surfaces which form mechanical vibrations. In the medical field, ultrasound
devices are used to generate images of the internal body organs with the aid of high
frequency sound waves so as to aid in the diagnosis of the patient without use of
invasive methods. Seismology uses mechanical waves moving due to earthquakes
along the ground, granting scientists an opportunity to learn about the interior of the
planet and create more secure structures. Another use of engineering to test the
strength of material is by the analysis of vibration of mechanical waves. These
examples demonstrate the importance of the mechanical waves in facilitating the
learning, research, safety and technology in the practical and professional fields.
1.3 Electromagnetic Waves

History of Electromagnetic Waves

James Clerk Maxwell broke new ground in the study of

electricity and magnetism in the 1860s with his
development of a full mathematical theory which
bridged the two phenomena. With his works, Maxwell
proved that the value of electric and magnetic fields
could be ascertained at any given point in space as
long as the sources of these fields are known. By the
era of Michael Faraday the concentration of stationary
electric charges was known to give rise to electric
fields and moving charges (or electric currents) to
magnetic fields. The experiments of Faraday also
demonstrated that a varying magnetic field may create
an electric field, a process described as
electromagnetic induction. On this basis Maxwell made a critical theoretical
breakthrough when he suggested that the opposite was also true, that a changing
magnetic field can also cause an electric field. That knowledge enabled Maxwell to
design the symmetry of the theory of electromagnetism. Later he discovered what
came to be called Maxwell equations, the four beautiful partial differential equations
that govern how electric and magnetic fields (E and B respectively) are created and
modified by charges and currents. Together with the equation which expresses the
force of these fields on electric charges, Maxwell equations are the foundation of
classical electromagnetism, and are now one of the most influential systems of any
branch of physics.

In 1888 Heinrich Hertz succeeded in generating what

today are called radio waves, ingeniously demonstrating
such to exist, by proving experimentally the existence of
such electromagnetic waves thought of by James Clerk
Maxwell. Hertz did not only produce these waves but he also
confirmed that these waves move at the same velocity as
other visible lights. Besides, he has made measurements to
show that these waves share similarities with light by
reflecting and refracting, diffraction, and polarization. All
these provided strong justification of the predictions made by
Maxwell concerning the existence of electromagnetic waves.
The experiments of Hertz showed that the visible light is just
a subset of a much greater electromagnetic phenomena that will be known in the
future as the electromagnetic spectrum. It is an acuity that has unlimited numbers of
frequencies and wavelengths on this spectrum with no imagined boundaries on any
end. The nature of electromagnetic waves is the same no matter which wavelength
occurs. However, the electromagnetic spectrum is usually defined into different
regions. With this, these groupings are determined by historical backgrounds,
variations in the generation and detection of the waves as well as the different uses
of the waves in technologies and communication.

Electromagnetic Wave

The light emitted in the form of electromagnetic vibrations is a form of

radiation capable of travelling through the universe without a medium. They are
produced in electric and magnetic fields interacting particularly in the event of an
electric field varying interacting with a magnetic field varying. The electric field and
the magnetic field in an electromagnetic wave oscillate orthogonal to one another
and also the direction of the wave is moving in. Whereas, the electric and magnetic
fields can have nothing but a static form , as in the example of the static charger of a
balloon sticking on a wall or that of a refrigerator magnet sticking to metal, the
interaction of these fields in motion can create waves that have the ability to transmit
energy over huge distances.

The capability to travel even in a vacuum is one of the most hallmark of the
electromagnetic waves as compared to the traveling waves such as sound waves
which cannot travel without a medium example air or solids. Sound waves travel
when the molecules bounce along and pass the energy on to others so it is akin to
dominoes falling down. Conversely, the electromagnetic waves would traverse
through air or solid substances and also through space-vacuum. This is their unique
feature which renders them so useful in a great number of modern technologies.
Electromagnetic waves in its various forms are used everyday just by listening to the
radio, getting connected to wireless networks and even cooking meals in an oven
microwave. To take an example, the electromagnetic waves used as the radio and
the microwaves are the same; their difference lies merely in their wavelength or the
space separating one high point in the wave and another.

Electromagnetic waves are transverse: the electric and the magnetic

components oscillate across each other and across the direction in which the waves
travel. Their rate, frequency and wavelength are linked mathematically in the formula
v = f × λ where v is the rate of a wave, f is the frequency, and lambda is wavelength.
Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum possesses the entire potential of

electromagnetic waves frequencies and wavelengths. Though no theoretical
difference exists between waves of differing wavelengths, there have been
standardized divisions of regions of the spectrum on historical and definitive grades,
methods of production and detection together with their usage. These include:

Radio Waves- Radio waves have long wavelength and low frequencies and they are
mostly employed in broadcasting of audio and information via radio, television and
two-way communication.

Microwaves- Unable to transmit long distances, microwaves also have shorter

wavelengths than radio waves, making them perfect in communication systems like
mobile phones and Wi-Fi and even as microwave ovens when it comes to heating
food.

Infrared Radiation- It is referred to as heat radiation and it possesses longer

wavelength than visible light, it is applied in thermal cameras, remote controls and
other sensing devices.

Visible Light- The most visualized natural spectrum of the electromagnetic

spectrum that can be detected by human eye is visible light that takes into
consideration the colors in our environment. It goes as red (longer wavelength) to
violet (shorter wavelength).

Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation - The sun produces UV radiation with shorter wavelength
than the visible light which can cause sunburns and skin and eye damages. It is also
beneficial in sterilization and forensics despite its ill purposes.
X-Radiation (X-Rays) - X-rays are high frequency with short wavelengths and
therefore they are able to penetrate the body. Medical imaging requires them to
diagnose fractures and the internal status of bones.

Gamma Radiation - Radiation waves with the shortest wavelengths and highest
frequencies are gamma radiations. Gamma rays are created in the process of
nuclear reactions, and they are very energetic and this is employed during treatment
of cancer, as they kill the cancerous cells.

1.4 Basic Wave Equation

Amplitude
As waves travel, they set up patterns of disturbance. The amplitude
of a wave is its maximum disturbance from rest (its undisturbed
position).
Note: It is important to note that the amplitude is not the distance
between the top and bottom of a wave but is always measured
from the rest position – this is a common exam mistake.

Wavelength
The wavelength (λ) of a wave is the distance between a
point on one wave and the same point on the next wave.
It is often easiest to measure this from the crest (top) of
one wave to the crest of the next wave or the trough
(bottom) of one wave to the trough of the next wave. It
doesn't matter where you measure it, as long as it is the
same point on each wave (look for where the pattern repeats).

Frequency
The frequency of a wave is the number of cycles of a wave that
occur in one second.
The unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz). 1 Hz is one wave per
second. It is common for kilohertz (kHz), megahertz (MHz) and
gigahertz (GHz) to be used when waves have very high
frequencies.

Representing a transverse wave graphically

You need to know about two types of graph that can be used to represent transverse
waves:
●​ displacement-distance graphs
 ●​ displacement-time graphs

Displacement-distance
A displacement-distance graph is a snapshot of the wave at any given time.

v is the wave speed in metres per second, m/s

f is the frequency in hertz, Hz
λ (lambda) is the wavelength in metres, m

Formulas

Amplitude: (crest) - (trough) / 2

Period: T= time/(number of cycle)
Frequency: f= (number of cycles)/time or 1/T​
Wavelength: (λ)=v/f

Problem 1: Missing Speed (v)

Question: A wave has a frequency of 50 Hz and a wavelength of 4 meters. What is

the speed of the wave?
Given: f=50Hz λ=4m
Ask: v=?
Solution:
Use the formula:
v=f×λ
v = 50 Hz × 4 m
v = 200 m/s
Explanation: The wave travels at 200 meters per second.

Problem 2: Missing Frequency (f)

Question: A wave travels at a speed of 300 m/s and has a wavelength of 10 meters.
What is the frequency of the wave?
Given: 𝑣= 300 m/s, 𝜆= 10 m
Ask: 𝑓= ?
Solution:
Use the formula:
f=v÷λ
f = 300 m/s ÷ 10 m
f = 30 Hz

Explanation: The wave vibrates 30 times per second.

Problem 3: Missing Wavelength (λ)

Question: A wave has a frequency of 60 Hz and travels at a speed of 180 m/s. What
is the wavelength?
Given: f=60 Hz, v=180 m/s
Ask: λ =?
Solution:
Use the formula:
λ=v÷f
λ = 180 m/s ÷ 60 Hz
λ = 3 meters
Explanation: The distance between each wave crest is 3 meters.

Sample questions from: [Link]

1.​ Consider the graph shown below. Determine the wavelength, period,
frequency, and the amplitude.

Period:
T= time/#cycles
T= 12s/4
T= 3s

Frequency:
f=1/T
f=1/3s
f= 0.33 Hz

Amplitude:
A = 5m - (-5m)/2
A = 5+5/2
A = 10/2
A=5
Wavelength:
(λ) = (give distance)/(number of cycle)
(λ) = 30m/3(cycles)
(λ) = 10m/1cycle
(λ) = 10m

Amplitude:
A = 12v - (4v)/2
A = 8v/2
A = 4v

1.5 Velocity of Longitudinal Waves

Velocity

A longitudinal wave is a wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate

parallel to the direction of wave propagation. These waves travel through a medium
by compressing and expanding it, creating alternating compressions and
rarefactions.

Diagrams of Longitudinal Waves

1.​ Basic Longitudinal Wave Diagram

This diagram illustrates the fundamental components of a longitudinal wave,

including compressions and rarefactions.

​ 2.​ Longitudinal Wave in a Slinky

A practical demonstration using a slinky to visualize how particles move in the

direction of wave propagation.
​ 3.​ Longitudinal Wave in a Tube

An animation showing a longitudinal wave propagating through a tube, highlighting

the movement of particles and the wave’s progression.

The velocity of a longitudinal wave is determined by the medium’s properties:

​ •​ In Solids:

Where is Young’s Modulus and is the density of the material.

​ •​ In Fluids (Liquids/Gases):

Where is the bulk modulus and is the density of the fluid.

These formulas indicate that wave velocity increases with the medium’s elasticity
and decreases with its density. For instance, sound travels faster in solids like steel
than in air due to the higher elasticity and lower density of the solid.

Examples:

●​ Sound waves in air or water

●​ Vibrations in a spring or slinky
●​ Seismic P- waves ( primary waves)
The speed of a longitudinal wave depends on how stiff the medium is ( its
elasticity ) and how much mass it has per unit volume ( its density)

Formula:

Sample Problem:

Solution:
1.6 Velocity of Transverse Waves in a String

A transverse wave is a type of mechanical wave

where the particles of the medium move perpendicularly to
the direction of wave propagation. One of the most common
examples is the wave that forms on a stretched string when
plucked, such as on a guitar or violin.

The velocity (v) of a transverse wave on a stretched string depends on two key
factors:
●​ Tension (T) in the string, measured in Newtons (N)
●​ Linear mass density (μ) of the string, measured in kilograms per meter
(kg/m)

The relationship is given by the formula:

Where:

The diagram illustrates the physical

principles behind the velocity of a
transverse wave propagating along a
stretched string. To derive the expression
for wave velocity, we examine a small
element of the string that forms part of a
wave pulse. This pulse segment is
modeled as an arc of a circle with a small
angle , subtending an arc length , and a
radius . Two equal and opposite tension
forces act tangentially at the ends of the
arc. These forces have both horizontal and
vertical components. The horizontal
components cancel each other out due to
symmetry, while the vertical components
add up to provide a net restoring force that
pulls the string element toward the
equilibrium position.
Mathematically, the net vertical restoring force is:

The mass of the small element is expressed as:

where is the linear mass density of the string. Since the arc element follows
circular motion, it experiences a centripetal acceleration given by:

Applying Newton’s Second Law:

Canceling out and from both sides, we arrive at the fundamental wave velocity
equation:

This result shows that the velocity of a transverse

wave on a string is directly proportional to the
square root of the tension in the string and inversely
proportional to the square root of its mass per unit
length.

Sample Problems 1:

A string is under a tension of 100 N and has a mass per unit length of 0.01 kg/m.
What is the speed of the wave traveling through this string?

Given:

Find: Find the wave velocity

Formula:
Solution:

Answer:

Interpretation:
This result shows how fast a wave travels through a guitar string when it is properly
tensioned. In music, accurate wave speed ensures correct pitch. When the string is
thin and tightly stretched, it vibrates quickly — this is why higher-pitched strings are
thinner and under greater tension.

Sample Problem 2:

A wave on a violin string travels at 90 m/s while the string is under 162 N of tension.
What is the string’s linear mass density?

Given:

Find: Find the linear mass density

Formula:

Solution:

Answer:

Interpretation:
This calculation helps identify the material or type of string used in an instrument.
Lower mass per unit length allows faster vibrations, leading to higher frequencies.
Understanding this is crucial in the design and replacement of strings to maintain
tuning accuracy and sound quality.

Sample Problem 3:

In a physics experiment, a transverse wave must travel at 40 m/s on a string with a

linear mass density of 0.05 kg/m. What tension should be applied?
Given:

Find: Find the tension

Formula:

Answer:

Practical Applications of the Velocity of Transverse Waves in a String

The concept of wave velocity in a stretched string is not only important in physics
theory, but it is also applied in various real-world scenarios. Understanding how
wave speed depends on tension and linear mass density helps professionals in
different fields design, adjust, and troubleshoot physical systems. Below are some
key practical applications:

1.​ Musical Instruments (Guitar, Violin, Piano Strings)

●​ When tuning stringed instruments, musicians adjust the tension of the strings
to change the pitch. A higher tension results in a faster wave speed, which
produces a higher frequency or pitch. Also, thinner strings (lower μ) produce
faster waves. Knowing the wave velocity formula helps in manufacturing and
tuning instruments precisely.

Example:
If a violin string is too loose (low tension), the wave moves slowly, producing a flat
note. Tightening the string increases tension, increasing wave speed and correcting
the pitch.
 2.​ Engineering and Construction (Cables and Bridges)

●​ In bridge cables, elevators, and cranes, engineers analyze the behavior of

waves and vibrations in tensioned cables. By understanding wave velocity,
they can predict resonance, prevent structural failures, and ensure safety
under load. The formula helps determine if the string or cable will transmit
vibrations safely.

Example:
During an earthquake, vibrations may travel through cables. Engineers must ensure
these waves don't reach a dangerous velocity that matches the cable’s natural
frequency.

3.​ Medical Diagnostics (Ultrasound and Imaging Devices)

●​ In medical physics, transverse wave principles are used in ultrasound

imaging, where wave velocity in different tissues helps create images of the
human body. Tension and density of tissues affect how fast waves move.
Though these are not “strings,” the mathematical relationship helps model
wave behavior.

Example:
Ultrasound gels help match the wave speed to body tissues, improving image
accuracy and reducing wave reflection.

1.7 Water Waves

What Is a Wave?

A wave can be defined as a disturbance in the form of a ridge or swell on the

surface of a body of water that travels in a forward motion. The wave is an
up-and-down disturbance of the water surface. Waves may be progressive, in which
the crests and troughs seem to travel at a stable speed in a direction perpendicular
to themselves.

A wave causes the water surface to move up and down in simple harmonic
motion as the wave crests and troughs. The time for one complete cycle is the
wave’s period T.

The wave’s frequency will be f=1/T.

 The speed at which the wave disturbance moves is called the wave
velocity(vw), which can also be defined as the speed with which a wave disturbance
moves, and sometimes it is also termed the propagation speed or propagation
velocity because the disturbance propagates from one position to another.

Water Wave Formation

Water waves are formed by the

interaction between the earth, moon and the
sun. Also, the wind blowing across the surface
of water bodies like rivers and oceans is the
reason for the formation of water waves.

Wind Waves

The most common type of waves are the wind waves, where the wind
transfers a lot of energy when it comes in contact with the surface of the water,
forming ripples in lakes and waves in oceans. The more substantial the wind causes,
the larger the waves.

Tidal Waves

Tidal waves are the wind waves that arise due to the gravitational force
between the moon and the earth. The ocean water stays in its place because of the
earth’s gravity, but the moon’s gravity pulls the ocean water on the planet, which
causes the waves to sway up and down. This happens when the moon is closer to
the side of the Earth. This is termed as high tide, and the other part of the earth
where the moon is not comparable is termed low tide.

Underwater Explosion

This is one more reason why waves are formed. Huge waves like tsunamis
are produced due to underwater earthquakes in the oceans. Also, volcanoes,
landslides, and meteors are other underwater explosions resulting in enormous
destructive waves.

There are basically three types of water waves: sea waves of seismic origin
(tsunamis), swell waves, and wind surges.
Water Wave Characteristics

●​ Wave crest and trough: The peak and bottom-most points of a wave are
termed the crest and trough, respectively.
●​ Wave amplitude: One-half of the wave height is termed wave amplitude.
●​ Wave height: The vertical distance from the top of a crest to the bottom of a
wave trough is called wave height.
●​ Wave period is simply the time break between two consecutive wave crests or
troughs as they pass a fixed point.
●​ Wavelength: The horizontal distance between two successive crests.
●​ Wave speed: The rate at which a wave travels through the water; wave speed
is measured in knots.
●​ Wave frequency: During the time interval of one second, the total number of
waves passing through a given point.

1.8 Energy Transmission by Wave

What do waves transfer?

-​ Waves are a common occurrence at the beach. Ocean waves crash onto the
shore relentlessly, and the water is always moving. Many people believe that
the water is being moved by the waves, but in actuality, ocean waves are the
transportation of energy made visible. The water is not being pushed along,
but rather it is the energy of the wave that moves through the water. The
water particles, or molecules, do not move horizontally with the wave. Instead,
they move vertically up and down as the wave moves through them. The
energy that is transferred by the wave changes from potential energy to
kinetic energy to potential energy again.

The transfer of energy by waves refers to the process through which energy
moves from one location to another without the physical transport of matter.
Waves can be mechanical, such as sound waves or water waves, or
electromagnetic, such as light waves.

How do waves transfer energy?

-​ How do waves transfer and transport energy? How do electromagnetic waves
transfer energy? These questions are complex, and to understand the
answers to them, it is important to first understand the nature of particles and
energy. There are two different kinds of waves: mechanical and
electromagnetic.
-​ Mechanical waves transport mechanical, or kinetic, energy. They interact
with matter, which includes anything solid, liquid, gas, or plasma. When kinetic
energy interacts with a medium, that energy is transferred through the
vibrations of the medium particles. Types of mechanical waves include sound
 waves that travel through air and water, and mechanical waves that travel
through water, such as waves crashing on a beach. In these examples, the
potential energy of the medium is transformed into kinetic energy when a
force is applied, such as the wind. The kinetic energy moves through the
vibrations of the medium from one molecule to the next as it travels as a
wave. The molecules move up and down, and the energy is propelled
forward.

-​ Electromagnetic waves differ slightly from mechanical waves. Unlike

mechanical energy, electromagnetic energy does not need a medium to travel
through. This is because the type of energy that is transported by
electromagnetic waves is light and heat energy. Electromagnetic waves
include light, radio waves, and X-rays, which all travel at the same speed but
differ in size. These waves can travel through media such as water and air,
and can also travel through the vacuum of space. Electromagnetic waves
transport energy through the vibration of electric and magnetic fields, which
couple together to transport packages of energy known as photons.

Amplitude and Energy

The amplitude of a wave is the measure of the length between the rest position to
the top of the crest or the bottom of the trough. Amplitude defines the energy of a
wave. A high amplitude wave translates to a high energy wave, and a low amplitude
wave translates to a low energy wave. Examples of high-amplitude waves are loud
sounds and bright lights.
Frequency and Energy
Frequency refers to the number of waves per second, and it is measured in hertz.
Frequency has a direct impact on the transmission of energy. The higher frequency
implies more energy per second. A wave with a particular amplitude will transmit
more energy per second due to its higher frequency. For instance, high-frequency
lights consist of photons that contain high energy proportional to their frequency.

1.​ Some Examples of Energy Transfer:​

- Sound Waves: When a person speaks, they create sound waves
that travel through the air, transferring energy to the air molecules
and then to anyone nearby who can hear the sound.​
- Light Waves: When sunlight reaches the Earth, it transfers energy
that warms the planet and drives photosynthesis in plants.

Real-World Application:

●​ Sound Systems – Speakers vibrate to send sound waves; higher volume =

higher amplitude = more energy.
●​ Ocean Energy – Wave power plants capture kinetic energy from ocean waves
to generate electricity.
●​ Communication – Radio, microwave, and light signals carry data through EM
waves over long distances.
●​ Medical Imaging – Ultrasound waves transmit energy into the body and
bounce back to create images.
●​ Earthquakes – Seismic waves transmit energy through the Earth, which helps
scientists understand tremors and design safer buildings.

In short, energy transmission by waves is not just theoretical; it powers and protects
our modern world.

1.9 Wave Properties

As light travels through air, it exhibits various phenomena such as reflection,

refraction, diffraction, interference.
Reflection is a phenomenon where a wave encounters an interface and is turned
back into its original state. Reflection keeps the wave in the same medium and only
reverses the wave’s direction.

The Law of Reflection states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection.

When a wave encounters a boundary, all of the wave or its parts can be reflected,
depending on the different factors like the angle of incidence and the properties of
the reflecting surfaces. Since the angle of the incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection, both angles are measured relatively to the normal line. In which the
imaginary line is perpendicular to the interface and the point of the boundary where
the wave hits.

If a wave hits a boundary head-on, the wave will be reflected back to the same path.

​
The image demonstrates the law of reflection, showing light from a flashlight striking
a surface. The angle of incidence, between the incoming light ray and the normal
line, is clearly depicted as equal to the angle of reflection, between the reflected ray
and the normal line.

Refraction is the bending of a wave when it passess from one medium to another.
The bending is caused due to the differences in density of two substances. The
usage of optical instruments such as magnifying glasses, lenses, and prisms are
made possible by this phenomenon. Also, due to refraction. We are able to focus
light in our retinas.

The Law of Refraction, also known as the Snell’s Law, demonstrates how the light
bends when it passes from one medium to another. This law has two principles:

1.​ The incident ray, refracted ray, and the normal line lies within the same plane.
2.​ The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence and the ratio of the angle of
refraction are all constant for a given pair of mediums.

The image below demonstrates how refraction of light happens. When the light
travels through air into the glass, the light slows down and changes its direction
slightly. The speed of light decreases as it continues to travel at a different angle.

Diffraction happens when the bending of light around corners such that it spreads
out and illuminates areas where a shadow is unexpected. Diffraction happens to all
waves. This phenomenon is a result of waves interfering with each other as they
pass through or around obstacles. Diffraction not only happens on light waves, it also
happens on different waves such as sound, and water waves.
This spreading out of a wave as it passes through an opening or around an obstacle
is known as diffraction. It occurs because each point on a wavefront can be
considered as a source of secondary spherical wavelets (Huygens' Principle), and
these wavelets interfere to produce the observed pattern. The extent of diffraction is
most noticeable when the size of the opening or obstacle is comparable to the
wavelength of the wave.

Diffraction follows the Huygens’ Principle, developed by Christiaan Huygens in

1678. The Huygens’ Principle states that “Every point on a wavefront is in itself
the source of spherical wavelets which spread out in the forward direction at
the speed of light. The sum of these spherical wavelets forms the wavefront.”

Examples of Diffraction

The rays you see piercing through the sky from behind and around the cloud are
essentially sunlight that has been diffracted and scattered by particles (like water
droplets, dust, or aerosols) in the atmosphere.

Interference can be witnessed when two waves travel along with the same medium.
This phenomenon occurs when two waves meet or superimpose while travelling.
The resultant wave happens when two waves interfere with each other. The sum of
the individual waves is the value of the resultant wave.

Interference has two types: Constructive and Destructive.

Constructive Interference is when two waves travel in the same direction and are
in phase with each other, their amplitude gets added, and the resultant wave is
obtained. Here, the waves are said to have undergone constructive interference.

This image illustrates constructive interference, where two waves (Wave X and
Wave Y) are in phase, meaning their peaks and troughs align. When these waves
combine, their amplitudes add up, resulting in a larger amplitude in the resultant
wave (Wave Z).

Destructive Interference takes place in any location along with the medium when
the two waves that interfere with each other have a displacement in the opposite
direction.
This image shows destructive interference, where two waves with equal
amplitudes and frequencies meet exactly out of phase (crest aligns with trough).
When they combine, their displacements cancel each other out, resulting in a flat
line, meaning zero amplitude for the resultant wave.

2.0 Resonance and The Doppler Effect: Wave Phenomena

In the study of waves and vibrations, two important phenomena Resonance

and the Doppler Effect help us understand how motion and natural frequencies
affect sound and other types of waves. These concepts explain everyday
experiences such as why a siren changes pitch as it passes by, or how a singer can
break a glass using only their voice. They are also essential in fields such as
engineering, medicine, and astronomy.

Who discovered Resonance?

While Galileo Galilei is credited with the initial

discovery of resonance through his studies of pendulums
and musical strings in the early 1600s, specifically 1604.
He noticed that when a pendulum is pushed at its natural
frequency, the amplitude of its swing increases
dramatically, a phenomenon now known as resonance.
This discovery was a crucial step in understanding how
systems respond to periodic forces and laid the foundation
for further studies in physics and engineering.
Resonance
The Resonance effect happens when something vibrates at its natural
frequency because it is hit by a matching sound wave. This makes the
vibration stronger.​

Oscillations grow in amplitude due to

synchronized transfer of energy into
vibrating objects.

Resonant Frequency Formula:

The resonant frequency formula is used to calculate the natural frequency at which a
system oscillates with maximum amplitude.

Examples and Applications of Resonance:

1. Musical Instruments

Application: Instruments like guitars, violins, and tuning forks use resonance to
amplify sound.

2. Radio and TV Tuners

Application: Tuning a radio to a specific frequency uses electrical resonance in

circuits.

3. Bridges and Buildings

Application: Engineers design structures to avoid resonance frequencies that could

cause damage.

4. MRI Machines (Medical Imaging)

Application: MRI uses the principle of nuclear magnetic resonance to image soft
tissues.

A simple example is pushing

someone on a swing. If you push at
just the right moments (the swing’s
natural frequency), the swing
moves higher, this is resonance. If
the timing is off, the swing won’t go
as high.

According to Serway & Jewett (2004), a good demonstration of resonance

involves a setup where multiple pendulums are hung from a string. If one pendulum
(A) is set in motion, only the other pendulum (C), which has the same length (and
therefore the same natural frequency), will start to swing strongly, showing that
resonance occurs only when frequencies match.

One dramatic real-life example of resonance is a

wine glass breaking when exposed to a loud
sound wave at the same frequency as the glass’s
natural frequency. This builds up so much energy in
the glass that it shatters.

To further understand here’s a video how resonance

works:
[Link]

Resonance is also used in:

●​ Musical instruments to amplify sound.​

●​ Microwaves heat food by vibrating water molecules.​

●​ Radio tuning, where circuits match the frequency of a station.

Who discovered the Doppler effect?

Christian Doppler (born November 29, 1803, in

Salzburg, Austria – died March 17, 1853, in Venice) was a
renowned Austrian physicist best known for identifying how
the frequency of light and sound waves changes based on the relative motion
between the source and the observer. This concept later became known as the
Doppler Effect.

Doppler studied at the Polytechnical Institute in Vienna and, by 1850, had

become the director of the Physical Institute and a professor of experimental physics
at the University of Vienna. Although his early work focused on mathematics, in 1842
he published a groundbreaking paper titled Über das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne
(“On the Colored Light of Double Stars”), where he introduced the Doppler Effect. In
this work, he proposed that just as the pitch of sound from a moving object changes
for a stationary listener, the color (or frequency) of light emitted by a star should shift
depending on the star’s motion relative to Earth.

Doppler Effect

The Doppler Effect happens when the sound you hear changes because the
source of the sound or the listener is moving. When the source moves closer, the
sound gets higher in pitch. When it moves away, the sound gets lower.
The Doppler Effect formula:

The Doppler Effect formula, f ′ = f⋅(v+v o ​ )/ (v+v s ​) ​ , calculates the observed

frequency ( f ′ ) when an observer (v o ​) and a source ( v s ) are in motion relative to
each other, affecting the actual frequency ( f) of the wave.

Examples:

This can be heard in everyday situations such as:

🚑 An ambulance siren sounding high-pitched as it comes toward you, then

lower as it moves away.

✈️ An airplane's roar changing as it flies past.

🚗 A racing car’s engine sounding different as it speeds by.
The Doppler Effect has many scientific uses:

●​ Radar guns to measure speed.

●​ Weather Doppler radar to detect storm movement.

●​ Ultrasound in medicine to study blood flow.

●​ Astronomy, where a "red shift" in light from stars tells us they are moving
away, proving that the universe is expanding.

Case 1: Two people A and B, are standing

on the road, as shown below in the
picture.
Which person hears the sound of the revving engine with a greater
magnitude?

Answer: Person A hears the sound of the revving engine with a greater magnitude
than person B. Person B, standing behind the car, receives fewer waves per second
(because they’re spread out), resulting in a low-pitched sound. But, person A who is
in front of the car, receives more of those soundwave ripples per second. As a result,
the frequency of the waves is higher, which means the sound has a higher pitch.

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