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 Radical Theory of Rings

B. J. Gardner
University of Tasmania
Hobart, Tasmania, Australia

R. Wiegandt
A. Renyi Institute of Mathematics
Hungarian Academy of Sciences
Budapest, Hungary

MARCEL DEKKER, INC. NEW YORK • BASEL

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 PURE AND APPLIED MATHEMATICS

A Program of Monographs, Textbooks, and Lecture Notes

EXECUTIVE EDITORS

Earl J. Taft Zuhair Nashed

Rutgers University University of Central Florida
New Brunswick, New Jersey Orlando, Florida

EDITORIAL BOARD

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 MONOGRAPHS AND TEXTBOOKS IN
PURE AND APPLIED MATHEMATICS

1. K. Yano, Integral Formulas in Riemannian Geometry (1970)

2. S. Kobayashi, Hyperbolic Manifolds and Holomorphic Mappings (1970)
3. V. S. Vladimirov, Equations of Mathematical Physics (A. Jeffrey, ed.; A. Littlewood,
trans.) (1970)
4. B. N. Pshenichnyi, Necessary Conditions for an Extremum (L. Neustadt, translation
ed.; K. Makowski, trans.) (1971)
5. L Narici et a/., Functional Analysis and Valuation Theory (1971)
6. S. S. Passman, Infinite Group Rings (1971)
7. L. Domhoff, Group Representation Theory. Part A: Ordinary Representation Theory.
Part B: Modular Representation Theory (1971, 1972)
8. W. Boothby and G. L. Weiss, eds., Symmetric Spaces (1972)
9. Y. Matsushima, Differentiate Manifolds (E. T. Kobayashi, trans.) (1972)
10. L E. Ward, Jr., Topology (1972)
11. A. Babakhanian, Cohomological Methods in Group Theory (1972)
12. R. Gilmer, Multiplicative Ideal Theory (1972)
13. J. Ye/7, Stochastic Processes and the Wiener Integral (1973)
14. J. Barros-Neto, Introduction to the Theory of Distributions (1973)
15. R. Larsen, Functional Analysis (1973)
16. K. Yano and S. Ishihara, Tangent and Cotangent Bundles (1973)
17. C. Procesi, Rings with Polynomial Identities (1973)
18. R. Hermann, Geometry, Physics, and Systems (1973)
19. N. R. Wallach, Harmonic Analysis on Homogeneous Spaces (1973)
20. J. Dieudonne, Introduction to the Theory of Formal Groups (1973)
21. /. Vaisman, Cohomology and Differential Forms (1973)
22. e.-Y. Chen, Geometry of Submanifolds (1973)
23. M. Marcus, Finite Dimensional Multilinear Algebra (in two parts) (1973,1975)
24. R. Larsen, Banach Algebras (1973)
25. R. O. Kujala and A. L. Vitter, eds., Value Distribution Theory: Part A; Part B: Deficit
and Bezout Estimates by Wilhelm Stoll (1973)
26. K. B. Stolarsky, Algebraic Numbers and Diophantine Approximation (1974)
27. A. R. Magid, The Separable Galois Theory of Commutative Rings (1974)
28. B. R. McDonald, Finite Rings with Identity (1974)
29. J. Satake, Linear Algebra (S. Koh et al., trans.) (1975)
30. J. S. Golan, Localization of Noncommutative Rings (1975)
31. G. Klambauer, Mathematical Analysis (1975)
32. M. K. Agoston, Algebraic Topology (1976)
33. K. R. Goodearl, Ring Theory (1976)
34. L. E. Mansfield, Linear Algebra with Geometric Applications (1976)
35. N. J. Pullman, Matrix Theory and Its Applications (1976)
36. B. R. McDonald, Geometric Algebra Over Local Rings (1976)
37. C. W. Groetsch, Generalized Inverses of Linear Operators (1977)
38. J. E. Kuczkowski and J. L Gersting, Abstract Algebra (1977)
39. C. O. Christenson and W. L. Voxman, Aspects of Topology (1977)
40. M. Nagata, Field Theory (1977)
41. R. L. Long, Algebraic Number Theory (1977)
42. W. F. Pfeffer, Integrals and Measures (1977)
43. R. L Wheeden and A. Zygmund, Measure and Integral (1977)
44. J. H. Curtiss, Introduction to Functions of a Complex Variable (1978)
45. K. Hrbacek and T. Jech, Introduction to Set Theory (1978)
46. W. S. Massey, Homology and Cohomology Theory (1978)
47. M. Marcus, Introduction to Modern Algebra (1978)
48. E. C. Young, Vector and Tensor Analysis (1978)
49. S. B. Nadler, Jr., Hyperspaces of Sets (1978)
50. S. K. Segal, Topics in Group Kings (1978)
51. A. C. M. van Rooij, Non-Archimedean Functional Analysis (1978)
52. L. Corwin and R. Szczarba, Calculus in Vector Spaces (1979)
53. C. Sadosky, Interpolation of Operators and Singular Integrals (1979)
54. J. Cronin, Differential Equations (1980)
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 56. /. Vaisman, Foundations of Three-Dimensional Euclidean Geometry (1980)
57. H. /. Freedan, Deterministic Mathematical Models in Population Ecology (1980)
58. S. B. Chae, Lebesgue Integration (1980)
59. C. S. Rees et al., Theory and Applications of Fourier Analysis (1981)
60. L. Nachbin, Introduction to Functional Analysis (R. M. Aron, trans.) (1981)
61. G. Orzech and M. Orzech, Plane Algebraic Curves (1981)
62. R. Johnsonbaugh and W. E. Pfaffenberger, Foundations of Mathematical Analysis
(1981)
63. W. L. Voxman and R. H. Goetschel, Advanced Calculus (1981)
64. L. J. Corwin and R. H. Szczarba, Multivariable Calculus (1982)
65. V. I. Istratescu, Introduction to Linear Operator Theory (1981)
66. R. D. Jarvinen, Finite and Infinite Dimensional Linear Spaces (1981)
67. J. K. Beem and P. E. Ehrlich, Global Lorentzian Geometry (1981)
68. D. L. Armacost, The Structure of Locally Compact Abelian Groups (1981)
69. J. W. Brewer and M. K. Smith, eds., Emmy Noether: A Tribute (1981)
70. K. H. Kim, Boolean Matrix Theory and Applications (1982)
71. T. W. Wieting, The Mathematical Theory of Chromatic Plane Ornaments (1982)
72. D. [Link], Differential Topology (1982)
73. R. L. Faber, Foundations of Euclidean and Non-Euclidean Geometry (1983)
74. M. Carmeli, Statistical Theory and Random Matrices (1983)
75. J. H. Carruth et at., The Theory of Topological Semigroups (1983)
76. R. L. Faber, Differential Geometry and Relativity Theory (1983)
77. S. Barnett, Polynomials and Linear Control Systems (1983)
78. G. Karpilovsky, Commutative Group Algebras (1983)
79. F. Van Oystaeyen and A. Verschoren, Relative Invariants of Rings (1983)
80. /. Vaisman, A First Course in Differential Geometry (1984)
81. G. W. Swan, Applications of Optimal Control Theory in Biomedicine (1984)
82. T. Petrie and J. D. Randall, Transformation Groups on Manifolds (1984)
83. K. Goebel and S. Reich, Uniform Convexity, Hyperbolic Geometry, and Nonexpansive
Mappings (1984)
84. T. Albu and C. Nastasescu, Relative Finiteness in Module Theory (1984)
85. K. Hrbacek and T. Jech, Introduction to Set Theory: Second Edition (1984)
86. F. Van Oystaeyen and A. Verschoren, Relative Invariants of Rings (1984)
87. B. R. McDonald, Linear Algebra Over Commutative Rings (1984)
88. M. Namba, Geometry of Projective Algebraic Curves (1984)
89. G. F. Webb, Theory of Nonlinear Age-Dependent Population Dynamics (1985)
90. M. R. Bremner et al., Tables of Dominant Weight Multiplicities for Representations of
Simple Lie Algebras (1985)
91. A. E. Fekete, Real Linear Algebra (1985)
92. S. B. Chae, Holomorphy and Calculus in Normed Spaces (1985)
93. A. J. Jerri, Introduction to Integral Equations with Applications (1985)
94. G. Karpilovsky, Projective Representations of Finite Groups (1985)
95. L Narici and E. Beckenstein, Topological Vector Spaces (1985)
96. J. Weeks, The Shape of Space (1985)
97. P. R. Gribik and K. O. Kortanek, Extremal Methods of Operations Research (1985)
98. J.-A. Chao and W. A. Woyczynski, eds., Probability Theory and Harmonic Analysis
(1986)
99. G. D. Crown et al., Abstract Algebra (1986)
100. J. H. Carruth era/., The Theory of Topological Semigroups, Volume 2 (1986)
101. R. S. Doran and V. A. Belfi, Characterizations of C*-Algebras (1986)
102. M. W. Jeter, Mathematical Programming (1986)
103. M. Altman, A Unified Theory of Nonlinear Operator and Evolution Equations with
Applications (1986)
104. A. Verschoren, Relative Invariants of Sheaves (1987)
105. R. A. Usmani, Applied Linear Algebra (1987)
106. P. Blass and J. Lang, Zariski Surfaces and Differential Equations in Characteristic p >
0(1987)
107. J. A. Reneke et al., Structured Hereditary Systems (1987)
108. H. Busemann and B. B. Phadke, Spaces with Distinguished Geodesies (1987)
109. R. Harte, Invertibility and Singularity for Bounded Linear Operators (1988)
110. G. S. Ladde et al., Oscillation Theory of Differential Equations with Deviating Argu-
ments (1987)
111. L. Dudkin et al., Iterative Aggregation Theory (1987)
112. T. Okubo, Differential Geometry (1987)

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114. T. C. Gard, Introduction to Stochastic Differential Equations (1988)
115. S. S. Abhyankar, Enumerative Combinatorics of Young Tableaux (1988)
116. H. Strade and R. Famsteiner, Modular Lie Algebras and Their Representations (1988)
117. J. A. Huckaba, Commutative Rings with Zero Divisors (1988)
118. W. D. Wallis, Combinatorial Designs (1988)
119. W. Wiestaw, Topological Fields (1988)
120. G. Karpilovsky, Field Theory (1988)
121. S. Caenepeel and F. Van Oystaeyen, Brauer Groups and the Cohomology of Graded
Rings (1989)
122. W. Kozlowski, Modular Function Spaces (1988)
123. E. Lowen-Colebunders, Function Classes of Cauchy Continuous Maps (1989)
124. M. Pavel, Fundamentals of Pattern Recognition (1989)
125. V. Lakshmikantham et a/., Stability Analysis of Nonlinear Systems (1989)
126. R. Sivaramakrishnan, The Classical Theory of Arithmetic Functions (1989)
127. N. A. Watson, Parabolic Equations on an Infinite Strip (1989)
128. K. J. Hastings, Introduction to the Mathematics of Operations Research (1989)
129. B. Fine, Algebraic Theory of the Bianchi Groups (1989)
130. D. N. Dikranjan etal., Topological Groups (1989)
131. J. C. Morgan II, Point Set Theory (1990)
132. P. BilerandA. Witkowski, Problems in Mathematical Analysis (1990)
133. H. J. Sussmann, Nonlinear Controllability and Optimal Control (1990)
134. J.-P. Florens et a/., Elements of Bayesian Statistics (1990)
135. N. Shell, Topological Fields and Near Valuations (1990)
136. B. F, Doolin and C. F. Martin, Introduction to Differential Geometry for Engineers
(1990)
137. S. S. Holland, Jr., Applied Analysis by the Hilbert Space Method (1990)
138. J. Okninski, Semigroup Algebras (1990)
139. K. Zhu, Operator Theory in Function Spaces (1990)
140. G. B. Price, An Introduction to Multicomplex Spaces and Functions (1991)
141. R. 6. Darsf, Introduction to Linear Programming (1991)
142. P. L Sachdev, Nonlinear Ordinary Differential Equations and Their Applications (1991)
143. T. Husain, Orthogonal Schauder Bases (1991)
144. J. Foran, Fundamentals of Real Analysis (1991)
145. W. C. Brown, Matrices and Vector Spaces (1991)
146. M. M. RaoandZ. D. Ren, Theory of Orlicz Spaces (1991)
147. J. S. Golan and T. Head, Modules and the Structures of Rings (1991)
148. C. Small, Arithmetic of Finite Fields (1991)
149. K. Yang, Complex Algebraic Geometry (1991)
150. D. G. Hoffman et a/., Coding Theory (1991)
151. M. O. Gonzalez, Classical Complex Analysis (1992)
152. M, O. Gonzalez, Complex Analysis (1992)
153. L. W. Baggett, Functional Analysis (1992)
154. M. Sniedovich, Dynamic Programming (1992)
155. R. P. Agarwal, Difference Equations and Inequalities (1992)
156. C. Brezinski, Biorthogonality and Its Applications to Numerical Analysis (1992)
157. C. Swartz, An Introduction to Functional Analysis (1992)
158. S. B. Nadler, Jr., Continuum Theory (1992)
159. M. A. AI-Gwaiz, Theory of Distributions (1992)
160. E. Perry, Geometry: Axiomatic Developments with Problem Solving (1992)
161. E. Castillo and M. R. Ruiz-Cobo, Functional Equations and Modelling in Science and
Engineering (1992)
162. A. J. Jerri, Integral and Discrete Transforms with Applications and Error Analysis
(1992)
163. A. Chariier et al., Tensors and the Clifford Algebra (1992)
164. P. Bilerand T. Nadzieja, Problems and Examples in Differential Equations (1992)
165. £ Hansen, Global Optimization Using Interval Analysis (1992)
166. S. Guerre-Delabriere, Classical Sequences in Banach Spaces (1992)
167. Y. C. Wong, Introductory Theory of Topological Vector Spaces (1992)
168. S. H. KulkamiandB. V. Limaye, Real Function Algebras (1992)
169. W. C. Brown, Matrices Over Commutative Rings (1993)
170. J. Loustau and M. Dillon, Linear Geometry with Computer Graphics (1993)
171. W. V. Petryshyn, Approximation-Solvability of Nonlinear Functional and Differential
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173. T. A. Bick, Elementary Boundary Value Problems (1993)
174. M. Pavel, Fundamentals of Pattern Recognition: Second Edition (1993)
175. S. A. Albeverio et a/., Noncommutative Distributions (1993)
176. W. Fulks, Complex Variables (1993)
177. M. M. Rao, Conditional Measures and Applications (1993)
178. A. Janicki and A. Weron, Simulation and Chaotic Behavior of a-Stable Stochastic
Processes (1994)
179. P. Neittaanmaki and D. Tiba, Optimal Control of Nonlinear Parabolic Systems (1994)
180. J. Cronin, Differential Equations: Introduction and Qualitative Theory, Second Edition
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181. S. Heikkila and V. lakshmikantham, Monotone Iterative Techniques for Discontinuous
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182. X. Mao, Exponential Stability of Stochastic Differential Equations (1994)
183. a S. Thomson, Symmetric Properties of Real Functions (1994)
184. J. E. Rubio, Optimization and Nonstandard Analysis (1994)
185. J. L Bueso et at., Compatibility, Stability, and Sheaves (1995)
186. A. N. Michel and K. Wang, Qualitative Theory of Dynamical Systems (1995)
187. M. R. Darnel, Theory of Lattice-Ordered Groups (1995)
188. Z. Naniewicz and P. D. Panagiotopoulos, Mathematical Theory of Hemivariational
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189. L J. Corwin and R. H. Szczarba, Calculus in Vector Spaces: Second Edition (1995)
190. L. H. Erbe et a/., Oscillation Theory for Functional Differential Equations (1995)
191. S. Agaianetal., Binary Polynomial Transforms and Nonlinear Digital Filters (1995)
192. M. I. Gil', Norm Estimations for Operation-Valued Functions and Applications (1995)
193. P. A. Grillet, Semigroups: An Introduction to the Structure Theory (1995)
194. S. Kichenassamy, Nonlinear Wave Equations (1996)
195. V. F. Kmtov, Global Methods in Optimal Control Theory (1996)
196. K. /. Beidaret a/., Rings with Generalized Identities (1996)
197. V. I. Amautov et a/., Introduction to the Theory of Topological Rings and Modules
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198. G. Sierksma, Linear and Integer Programming (1996)
199. R. Lasser, Introduction to Fourier Series (1996)
200. V. Sima, Algorithms for Linear-Quadratic Optimization (1996)
201. D. Redmond, Number Theory (1996)
202. J. K. Beem et a/., Global Lorentzian Geometry: Second Edition (1996)
203. M. Fontana et a/., Prufer Domains (1997)
204. H. Tanabe, Functional Analytic Methods for Partial Differential Equations (1997)
205. C. Q. Zhang, Integer Flows and Cycle Covers of Graphs (1997)
206. £. Spiegel and C. J. O'Donnell, Incidence Algebras (1997)
207. 6. Jakubczyk and W. Respondek, Geometry of Feedback and Optimal Control (1998)
208. T. W. Haynes et a/., Fundamentals of Domination in Graphs (1998)
209. T. W. Haynes et a/., eds., Domination in Graphs: Advanced Topics (1998)
210. L A. D'Alotto et a/., A Unified Signal Algebra Approach to Two-Dimensional Parallel
Digital Signal Processing (1998)
211. F. Halter-Koch, Ideal Systems (1998)
212. N. K. Govil et a/., eds., Approximation Theory (1998)
213. R. Cross, Multivalued Linear Operators (1998)
214. A. A. Martynyuk, Stability by Liapunov's Matrix Function Method with Applications
(1998)
215. A. Favini and A. Yagi, Degenerate Differential Equations in Banach Spaces (1999)
216. A. Illanes and S. Nadler, Jr., Hyperspaces: Fundamentals and Recent Advances
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217. G. Kato and D. Struppa, Fundamentals of Algebraic Microlocal Analysis (1999)
218. G. X.-Z. Yuan, KKM Theory and Applications in Nonlinear Analysis (1999)
219. D. Motreanu and N. H. Pavel, Tangency, Flow Invariance for Differential Equations,
and Optimization Problems (1999)
220. K. Hrbacek and T. Jech, Introduction to Set Theory, Third Edition (1999)
221. G. E. Kolosov, Optimal Design of Control Systems (1999)
222. N. L. Johnson, Subplane Covered Nets (2000)
223. 6. Fine and G. Rosenberger, Algebraic Generalizations of Discrete Groups (1999)
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228. R. P. Agarwal, Difference Equations and Inequalities: Theory, Methods, and Applica-
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229. A. B. Kharazishvili, Strange Functions in Real Analysis (2000)
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231. A. I. Prilepko et a/., Methods for Solving Inverse Problems in Mathematical Physics
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232. F. Van Oystaeyen, Algebraic Geometry for Associative Algebras (2000)
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236. R. Hagen et a/., C*-Algebras and Numerical Analysis (2001)
237. Y. Talpaert, Differential Geometry. With Applications to Mechanics and Physics (2001)
238. R. H. Villarreal, Monomial Algebras (2001)
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240. A. A. Samarskii, The Theory of Difference Schemes (2001)
241. J. Knopfmacher and W.-B. Zhang, Number Theory Arising from Finite Fields (2001)
242. S. Leader, The Kurzweil-Henstock Integral and Its Differentials (2001)
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248. A. N. Michel and D. Liu, Qualitative Analysis and Synthesis of Recurrent Neural Net-
works (2002)
249. J. R. Weeks, The Shape of Space: Second Edition (2002)
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252. T. Albu, Cogalois Theory (2003)
253. A. Bezdek, Discrete Geometry (2003)
254. M. J. Corless and A. E. Frazho, Linear Systems and Control: An Operator Per-
spective (2003)
255. /. Graham and G. Kohr, Geometric Function Theory in One and Higher Dimensions
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256. G. V. Demidenko and S. V. Uspenskii, Partial Differential Equations and Systems Not
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257. A. Kelarev, Graph Algebras and Automata (2003)
258. A. H. Siddiqi, Applied Functional Analysis: Numerical Methods, Wavelet Methods,
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259. F. W. Steutel and K. van Harn, Infinite Divisibility of Probability Distributions on the
Real Line (2004)
260. G. S. Ladde and M. Sambandham, Stochastic Versus Deterministic Systems of Dif-
ferential Equations (2004)
261. B. J. Gardner and R. Wiegandt, Radical Theory of Rings (2004)
262. J. Haluska, The Mathematical Theory of Tone Systems (2004)

Additional Volumes in Preparation

E. Hansen and G. W. Walster, Global Optimization Using Interval Analysis: Second

Edition, Revised and Expanded (2004)

C. Menini and F. Van Oystaeyen, Abstract Algebra: A Comprehensive Treatment

(2004)

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 To Louisa, Anna and Julia (B. J. G.)

To Peter and Thomas (R. W.)

Copyright © 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc.

 Preface

So erne Arbeit wird eigentlich nie This discontinued way of writing may
fertig. Man muB sie fur fertig have occasioned, besides others, two
halten, wenn man nach Zeit und contrary faults, viz. that too little and
Umstanden das Moglichste getan too much may be said in it. If thou
hat. findest anything wanting, I shall be
(J. W. Goethe) glad that what I have writ gives thee
any desire that I should have gone fur-
ther. If it seems too much to thee, thou
must blame the subject.
(John Locke)

We started writing this book long ago, and now — as the first motto
claims — we consider it ready for publication. Our aim was to give a sys-
tematic treatment of the radical theory of rings. This book, of course, does
not contain the radical theory of rings: the theory is still in progress and
it is not possible to define its borders. Besides the most important topics
we discuss only some selected parts of the theory. At many places we give
only references for more results and further directions of investigation. Some
important branches of radical theory have been deliberately omitted but not
neglected, for instance the study of lattices of radicals, of the behaviour of
the (Jacobson) radical of group rings, of radicals of topological rings (see
Arnautov [1] and [2]).
Although the basic idea of introducing a radical goes back to Wed-
derburn [1] (1908), we may say that the genesis of radical theory was in

Copyright © 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc.

 vi Preface

1930 when Kothe introduced the nil radical in his fundamental paper [I].
In the next two decades prominent algebraists introduced several successful
concrete radicals. Between 1952 and 1954 Amitsur [2], [3], [4] and Kurosh
[1] defined the notion of general radicals and proved basic results concerning
them. Further milestones of the theory were the papers of Andrunakievich
[1] in 1958 and of Anderson, Divinsky and Suliriski [1] in 1965.
The first book on radical theory of rings was written by Divinsky [2]
in 1965. This was followed by Leavitt's lecture notes [5] in about 1970, then
the books of Wiegandt [4] in 1974, Szasz [6] in 1975 (German edition, 1975,
English translation, 1981), and Andrunakievich and Ryabukhin [6] (in Rus-
sian) in 1979. The development of the radical theory in the quarter-century
since these books appeared calls for an up-to-date account of the subject.
Gardner [18] deals with radical theory for group-based structures; radical
theory for rings is a special case which is not treated in an encyclopaedic
way. Consequently, while some overlap between that book and the present
one is unavoidable, it is not excessive.
The reader is assumed to be familiar with the basic notions, techniques
and results of algebra, in particular of ring theory. We aimed to write a
selfcontained exposition of radical theory which can introduce the reader to
research work and which can become a handbook of the researcher. The
book has also served as the basis for a graduate course.
It is natural that as a theory gets developed, the exposition of im-
portant and original results is not optimal as far as its natural place in the
theory is concerned. We tried to do our best to present the theory of radicals
in a natural and organic way. The proofs are not always the shortest, but
possibly the easiest; we have endeavoured to keep them on an elementary
level.
The bibliography is far from being complete. In Szasz [6] and Wie-
gandt [4] it was fairly complete, but after a quarter of a century, seeking for
completeness would have been meaningless. Nevertheless, at the end of the
sections we give hints for more references, results of which are not discussed
in this book.
We advise the reader to begin this book with C h a p tre and
2 go back to
C h a p t re whenever
1 necessary. In Chapters 2 and 3 the general radical theory
of rings is developed, and here concrete radicals are introduced gradually as
examples of the general theory. So, arriving at Chapter 4, the reader has
got a fair amount of knowledge on concrete radicals, and is well-prepared
for the study of concrete radicals, and to prove structure theorems for rings.
Finally, in Chapter 5 we sketch the basic features of radical theory in varieties
of nonassociative rings, rings with involution and near-rings, respectively.
A pure mathematician is one who - in contrast to an applied math-
ematician - does not claim that his/her results are applicable. They are,

Copyright © 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc.

 Preface vii

therefore, often charged with doing research mainly for fun, for prestige, or
to a lesser extent for other purposes. This concerns also algebraists engaged
with radical theory. We are often faced with the nasty question: what is the
use of radical theory. An indisputable answer is that it does not harm, in
sharp contrast with many expensive and subsidised human activities. Our
opinion is that radical theory has contributed to the development of math-
ematics in the following five aspects (at least).
i) Living up to the original expectations, it provides structure theo-
rems for rings which are semisimple with respect to certain radicals (cf. for
instance, Sections 4.5, 4.7 and 4.10).
ii) Providing a context for studying and comparing properties, that is,
classes of rings via closure operations (as in most of the sections of Chapter 3,
in particular, in 3.1, 3.2, 3.9, 3.18 and 3.20).
iii) Constructing rings which distinguish given properties of rings, as
minimally embeddable rings in 3.13, rings distinguishing nil radicals in 4.2,
one-sided primitive rings and simple idempotent Jacobson radical rings in
4.6. Though the construction of such rings may ruin beautiful dreams, it
definitely serves the better understanding of the structure of rings.
iv) Revealing hidden properties of rings which can be successfully
used in various contexts of ring theory, for instance, the Andrunakievich
Lemma 1.2.7, Krempa's Lemma 3.4.2, Stewart's Lemma 3.4.11 and Gard-
ner's Lemma 3.19.17.
v) The infiltration of radical theory into other branches of mathematics
has opened new dimensions for research, and enriched the arsenal of inves-
tigations. First in the mid-sixties a fast development of (hereditary) torsion
theories took place in module categories and abelian categories. The inter-
pretation of radical theory in general topology is known as the connectedness
and disconnectedness theory which goes back to Preufi [1], Arhangel'ski! and
Wiegandt [1], and has become a branch of categorical topology. The radical
theory of graphs and abstract relational structures (a natural generalization
of graphs and topological spaces) was developed by Pried and Wiegandt [1],
[2], [3]. Radical theory has been applied also for Banach algebras (see Palmer
[1]). Recent investigations have led to interesting results in the theory of in-
cidence algebras and Petri nets (see Veldsman [16] and [18]).
The most general (Kurosh-Amitsur) radical theory was developed in
the paper [1] of Marki, Mlitz and Wiegandt; all the so far known theories fit
into its framework. Gardner [18] gives a unified treatment of the radical the-
ory of group based structures, including (abelian) groups, modules, lattice-
ordered groups (Martinez [1]), topological (abelian) groups. Also semifields
(Weinert and Wiegandt [1]) and group automata (Fong, Huang and Wie-
gandt [1]) are group based structures. Other algebraic (but not group-based)
stuctures for which a decent radical theory exists include semirings (see for
instance Olson and Jenkins [2], Hebisch and Weinert [1], [2], [3], Morak [1]),
and acts (Lex and Wiegandt [1]).
For purely categorical aspects of radical theory the reader is referred

Copyright © 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc.

 viii Preface

to the recent papers of Janelidze, Marki [1], [2] and Janelidze, Marki and
Tholen [1].
These topics will not be touched in this book.
Some authors deal exclusively with rings with unity element. This
assumption is all right and not restrictive, if the ring is fixed, as in module
theory or group ring theory or sometimes investigating polynomial rings and
power series rings (if the ring of coefficients does not possess a unity element,
the indeterminate x is not a member of the polynomial ring). Dealing, how-
ever, simultaneously with several objects in a category of rings, demanding
the existence of a unity element leads to a bizarre situation. Rings with
unity element include among their fundamental operations the nullary op-
eration >—> 1 assigning the unity element. Thus in the category of rings
with unity element the morphisms, in particular the monomorphisms, have
to preserve also this nullary operation: subrings (i.e. subobjects) have to
contain the same unity element, and so a proper ideal with unity element is
not a subring, although a ring and a direct summand; there are no infinite
direct sums, no nil rings, no Jacobson radical rings, the finite valued linear
transformations of an infinite dimensional vector space do not form a ring,
etc. Thus, in many, maybe most, branches of ring theory the requirement of
the existence of a unity element is not sensible, and therefore unacceptable.
This applies also to radical theory, and so in this book rings need not have a
unity element.
Sincere thanks are due to N. J. Divinsky for careful reading of and
kind advice on Chapter 2 and the first 8 sections of Chapter 3 which are
decisive in the exposition of radical theory. We are grateful to Zsuzsa Ero
for preparing the T^jX version of this book and to the Hungarian Research
Grant OTKA #T034530 for financial support. Finally we would like to
thank the staff of Marcel Dekker, Inc., for the cordial cooperation in the
production of this book.

B. J. Gardner
R. Wiegandt

Copyright © 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc.

 Contents
Preface v
Interdependence Chart xi

Chapter I. General Fundamentals 1

1.1 Rudiments 1
1.2 Some elementary ring theory 8
1.3 Skew polynomial rings 14

Chapter II. The General Theory of Radicals 21

2.1 Radical classes 21
2.2 Radical constructions 28
2.3 Semisimple classes 31

Chapter III. Radical Theory for Associative Rings 39

3.1 Semisimple classes of associative rings 39
3.2 Hereditary radicals and their semisimple classes 45
3.3 Lower radical constructions 51
3.4 The termination of the Kurosh radical construction 54
3.5 The Sulinski-Anderson-Divinsky problem 60
3.6 Supernilpotent radicals and their semisimple classes 65
3.7 Supernilpotent radicals and weakly special classes 73
3.8 Special radicals 79
3.9 Supplementing and dual radicals 89
3.10 Subidempotent radicals 98
3.11 Hypernilpotent and hypoidempotent radicals 101
3.12 Partition of simple rings, unequivocal rings 102
3.13 Minimally embeddable rings 108
3.14 Modules and radicals 118
3.15 Radicals denned by means of elements 131
3.16 One-sided hereditary radicals and stable radicals 135

IX

Copyright © 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc.

 x Contents

3.17 Strong radicals and strict radicals 142

3.18 Normal radicals 149
3.19 A-radicals 165
3.20 Radical semisimple classes 173

Chapter IV. Concrete Radicals and Structure Theorems 183

4.1 The principal nil radicals 183
4.2 Separation of the nil radicals 188
4.3 Coincidence of the nil radicals 196
4.4 The Jacobson radical 202
4.5 Structure theorems for Jacobson semisimple rings 208
4.6 One-sided primitivity and idempotent simple quasi-regular rings 218
4.7 Weakly primitive rings 235
4.8 The Brown-McCoy radical 253
4.9 Radicals of matrices and polynomials 256
4.10 Radicals on artinian rings 276
4.11 Concrete hypernilpotent radicals 284
4.12 Concrete hypoidempotent radicals 294

Chapter V. Special Features of the General Radical Theory 299

5.1 Degeneracy and pathology of nonassociative radical theory 299
5.2 Sufficient condition for a well-behaved radical theory:
Terlikowska-Oslowska's approach 305
5.3 Sufficient condition for a well-behaved radical theory:
Beidar's approach 309
5.4 On the radical theory of associative rings with involution 318
5.5 On the radical theory of near-rings 325

References 337
List of Symbols 367
List of Standard Conditions 373
Author Index 375
Subject Index 381

Copyright © 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc.

 Interdependence Chart

Chapters II and III

2.1

23
3.1
3.2
als

3.5 3.6
3.7
3!8
3.9

3.12 3.10

3.133.14 3.15 3.16 3.11

3.17

I I
3.18 3.20
I
3.19

XI

Copyright © 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc.

Xll Interdependence Chart

Chapter IV
3.14 3.15 3.18

4.8 4.1

4.9 4.2 4.3

3.14 3.18 3.20

4.4

4.5

4.6 4.7 4.10

4.1 4.10 3.2 3.10 3.15 3.20

4.11 4.12

Chapter V

i i n i
3.19 3.3 3.1 3.6

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5

Copyright © 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc.

 List of Standard Conditions
(a) 7 is homomorphically closed
(b) for V rings A, f(A) = £(/ < .A / 6 7) £ 7
(c) 7(^/7(^1)) = 0 for V rings A
(c) 7 is closed under extensions
(b) 7 has the inducitve property
(Rl) if A e 7, then for VA—> B ^ 0 3(7 < B such that 0 ^ C 6 7
(J?2) if A 6 A and for MA—1> B ^ 0 3C* < B such that 0 ^ C e 7, then
(51) CT is regular
(52) if A e A and for VO ^ B< A 3B—oC such that Qj^C €a, then
(Bl°) if A e 7, then for \/A—>B ± 03C >-B such that 0 ^ ^67
(R2°) if A e A and for VO ^ J5 < A 3.B—o C such that 0 jt C 6 7, then
(51°) if A eCT,then for VO ^ B >— A 3B—> C such that 0 ^ C e a
(52°) if A&A and for VO^B >—y!3B—1>(7 such that 0^<7e<T, then yl 6 CT
(A) Q is closed under essential extensions
(F) if # < I < A and //Jf =* 5, then /f < A
(R) if / < A, I 6 £> and 7* = 0, then A e Q
(A) if / < A and / e g , then A/1* 6 e
(Ml) if M 6 Sx//, then M e S^
(M2) if M e ZA, I < A and / C (0 : M)^, then M 6 S^/j
(M3) if ker (£A) = 0, then Sfl / 0 for VO ^ B < ^
(M4) if SB 7^ 0 for VO 7^ B < A, then ker (ZA) = 0
(5M3) if M e S>i, -B < A and BM ^ 0, then M e SB
(5M4) if B < A and M e SB, then BN e EX
(/ — s) L 6 7 implies L C 7(^4) for Vi <; A
(JV1) if I/; < KT < R 6 Q and L is a prime ring, then L 6 £
(7V2) if L <j Jf < r R, L e £ and R is a prime ring, then R e £
(.Kl) A e Af implies ^[z] 6 J
(K2) A[x] e SJ implies A e SA/"

373

Copyright © 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc.

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