PAPER

SOLID STATE PHYSICS

“DYNAMICS OF FREE ELECTRONS “

Complied By :

[Link] EGIDIA SHELOMITHA LIMBONG NIM (4211121015)

[Link] PUSPA ANGGREINY NIM (4213121007)

[Link] AZHARA NIM (4211121018)

[Link] BETARIA SONATA TAMPUBOLON NIM (4213121024)

Supporting Lecturer

Prof. Dr. Makmur Sirait, [Link]

Subject : Solid State of Physics

Class : PESP-2021

BILINGUAL PHYSICS EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

FACULTY OF MATH AND SCIENCE

MEDAN STATE UNIVERSITY

2024
 FOREWORD

By offering thanks to the presence of Almighty God for all His blessings and gifts to
the writer so that we can complete the paper entitled " Dynamics of Free Electrons ".

The purpose of writing this paper is to fulfill one of the tasks of the subject "SOLID
STATE OF PHYSICS". Besides that, this paper is expected to be a means of learning and can
add insight and knowledge. Besides, the author is also aware of all the shortcomings and
imperfections, both in terms of writing and from the way it is presented. Therefore, the author
is happy to accept criticism and suggestions for the improvement of this paper in the future.

The authors hope that this paper can be useful, especially for writers and readers in
general.

Medan, April 14th 2024

Group 1

1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD............................................................................................................................1
TABLE OF CONTENTS.........................................................................................................2
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................3
1.1. Background......................................................................................................................3
1.2. Problem of Formulation..................................................................................................3
1.3. Purpose of Writing...........................................................................................................4
CHAPTER II DISCUSSION...................................................................................................5
2.1. Free Electrons.................................................................................................................5
2.2. Classical Free Electron Model.........................................................................................5
2.3. Quantized Free Electron Model.......................................................................................7
2.4. Free Electron Contribution to CV Price.........................................................................9
2.5. Heat Capacity of Conduction Electrons.......................................................................11
2.6. Electrical Conductivity in Metals.................................................................................13
2.7. Electron Behavior in Metals.........................................................................................16
CHAPTER III CLOSING.....................................................................................................21
3.1. Conclusion....................................................................................................................21
3.2. Sugesstion.....................................................................................................................21
REFERENCES.......................................................................................................................22

2
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background
Electrons are negatively charged subatomic particles and are commonly written
-
as e . Electrons do not have any known basic components or substructure, so they are
believed to be elementary particles. Electrons have a mass of about 1/1836 that of a
proton. The electron's instrinsic angular momentum (spin) is half an integer value in units
of ħ, which means that it is a fermion. The antiparticle of the electron is called the
positron, which is identical to the electron, but positively charged.
When an electron collides with a positron, they may either scatter into each other
or be completely annihilated, resulting in a pair (or more) of gamma-ray photons.
Electrons, which belong to the first generation of the lepton family of particles,
participate in gravitational interactions, electromagnetic interactions and weak
interactions. Just like all matter, electrons have both particle-like and wave-like
properties (wave-particle duality), so they can collide with other particles and diffract
like light. Since electrons are fermions, two different electrons cannot occupy the same
quantum state according to the Pauli exclusion principle.
The concept of indivisible electric charge was theorized to explain the chemical
properties of atoms by natural philosopher Richard Laming as early as 1838; the name
electron was introduced to name this charge in 1894 by Irish physicist George Johnstone
Stoney. The electron was successfully identified as a particle in 1897 by J. J. Thomson.
In many physical phenomena, such as electricity, magnetism and thermal conductivity,
electrons play a very important role. An electron moving relative to an observer will
produce a magnetic field and the electron's trajectory will also be bent by an external
magnetic field.
When an electron is accelerated, it can absorb or emit energy in the form of
photons. Electrons, together with atomic nuclei made up of protons and neutrons, form
atoms. Electrons have many uses in modern technology, for example in electron
microscopy, radiation therapy, and particle accelerators. The bonding structure of loham
materials allows this type of solid substance to contain free electrons. While other non-
metallic materials, namely materials that have ionic or covalent bonds, do not have free
electrons. With the presence of these free electrons, metals have distinctive properties,
including being good conductors of electricity and heat conductors and shiny surfaces
(good reflection properties).

1.2. Problem of Formulation

1. What is a free electron?
2. What is the classical free electron model?
3. What are quantized free electrons?
4. What is the free electron contribution to the cv price?
5. What is the heat capacity of conduction electrons?
6. What is the electrical conductivity in metals?
7. How are electrons in metals?

3
1.3. Purpose of Writing
1. To know that free electrons are.
2. To know the classical free electron model works.
3. To know the quantized free electrons.
4. To know the contribution of free electrons to the cv price.
5. To know the heat capacity of conduction electrons
6. To know the electrical conductivity in metals
7. To know the electrons in metals

4
 CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION

2.1. Free Electrons

The electrical and magnetic properties of solids are determined primarily by the
properties of the electrons in the material. Overall, the energy level of electrons
determines the properties of solid materials. To determine the energy levels of electrons
in solids one can take many simpler models, which can be solved mathematically, and
hope that the solution will make sense. We started looking for a simple model by taking
a piece of metal and paying attention to the empirical facts, (which are true at room
temperature), that there are no electrons outside the metal boundary.
Thus there is a mechanism that keeps the electrons inside. What's that? It's
probably an infinite barrier potential at border. And what's going on inside? What is the
potential energy of an electron changes in the presence of very large numbers of nuclei
and other electrons? Suppose we consider it evenly distributed. We may think this is an
assumption (and of course we are absolutely right), but it is work. This was proposed
by Sommerfeld in 1928 and is known as the "free electron model" of a metal. We may
admit that this model is nothing but a previously discovered well of potential. There is
found a solution to the one-dimensional case in the following form:
2 2
h k
E=
2m
2 2
h n
¿
2m 8 m
If we imagine a cube with L sides containing electrons, then we obtain energy in
the same way :
2 2
h k 2 2 2
E= (k x +k y +k z)
2m
2
h 2 2
¿ 2
( n ¿ ¿ 2 x+ n y +n z)¿
8mL
when nx,ny,nz is integer

2.2. Classical Free Electron Model

Drude (1900) assumed that in metals there are free electrons, which form a
classical electron gas system, which move randomly in the crystal at random speeds
due to thermal energy and change their direction of motion after colliding with metal vi
ons. Because their mass is much greater, the metal ions are not affected in this collision.
The presence of an electric field ε in a metal only affects the overall motion of
electrons because the ions are arranged in a row and vibrate around the lattice point so
that they have no net translational motion. For example, there is an electric field ε in the
X-axis direction. Acceleration of electrons that arise:
eε
a x=
m∗¿ ¿
where e ε and m* are the effective charge and mass of the electron, respectively.
If the average time between two collisions of an electron and an ion is τ,

5
 then the velocity drifts in that time interval

Therefore the current density occurs

where the summation is carried out over all free electrons per unit volume.
Electrons move randomly, so ∑vo=0. Therefore it becomes

Because of the relationship Jx=σε, the electrical conductivity becomes

Measurements show that the average value of σ for metals is around

5.107(Ωm)-1 assuming the effective mass m* is equal to the free mass mo=9.1.10-
31kg, then we get a T value of the order of 10-14 s. Another example of analysis is the
thermal conductivity. For example, along the X-axis there is a temperature gradient
∂T/∂x, so there will be a flow of energy per unit area per second (heat flow) Qe. Based
on experiments, the heat flow Qe is proportional to the temperature gradient ∂T/∂x

Qe = -K ∂T/∂x
where K is thermal conductivity. In an insulator, heat is transferred entirely by
phonons. Meanwhile, in metals it is carried by phonons and electrons. But since the
concentration of electrons in metals is very large, then the thermal conductivity of
phonons is much smaller than that of electrons, namely Kphonon≅10- 2K electrons, so
phonon conductivity is negligible. From the gas kinetic theory approach, the expression
for thermal conductivity is obtained.

where CV, v and respectively are the electron heat capacity per unit volume, the
average particle velocity and the average free path of the particles. Because CV
=(3/2)nk, (1/2)mv2 = (3/2)kT and l=vT, then the conductivity becomes

6
 This is in accordance with empirical findings by Wiedemann-Frans (1853).
Sometimes the above ratio is expressed as a Lorentz number

As it turns out, the Wiedemann-Frans law agrees well with observations for both
high temperatures (including room temperature) and very low temperatures (a few K).
However, for “intermediate” temperatures, K/σT depends on temperature. In drude
theory, the mean free passage of free electrons, l=Tvo, does not temperature dependent.
However, since vo~T1/2, circumstances require it

This is supported by the experimental fact that σ~T-1, so that the expression for
electrical conductivity is obtained

or

This is inconsistent with the facts, and renders Drude's theory inadequate. The
classical free electron model of metals assumes the following.
a. A crystal is described as a superposition of a series of positive ion groups
(which form the crystal lattice) and electrons that are free to move in the
volume crystal.
b. These free electrons are treated as a gas, each of which moves randomly at a
thermal speed (like molecules in an ideal gas – there are no collisions,
except against boundary surfaces).
c. The effect of the ion's potential field is negligible, due to the kinetic energy
of the electron freedom is huge.
d. Electrons only move in the crystal due to the presence of potential barriers
at the boundary surfaces.

2.3. Quantized Free Electron Model

To correct the failure of the classical free electron model in examining the
electrical and magnetic properties of materials, a quantized free electron model is
proposed. This model uses the principle of electron energy quantization and the Pauli
exclusion principle for electrons involving the Fermi-Dirac distribution. The free electron
model, where the influence of all other free electrons and all positive ions is represented
by a potential V equal to zero so that the
The force acting on the electron is also equal to zero, quantumly taking the
Schrodinger equation.
2
−ℏ 2 ( )
∇ ψ r =ψ ( r )
2 mo
with electron function solution
ik ∙r
ψ ( r )= A o e
and electron energy

7
 2 2
ℏ k
E k=
2 mo
The price of k is not limited so the energy of the electron is not quantized. But if
the free electron moves in a cube with L ribs, then it must be fulfilled

( )
2
2π
2 2 2 2
k =k x + k y + k z =
L
( n x2 +n y 2+ nz2 )
n x =n y =n z=0 , ± 1 ,± 2 , …

( )
3
2π
In k-space, each electron state is represented by a volume of , i.e. for
L
∆ nx=∆ ny =∆ nz=1, respectively. All energized electron states
2
ℏ
E k=
2 mo
( k x2 + k y 2+ k z2 )
lies on the surface of a sphere of radius k that satisfies
2 mo
k =( k x + k y +k z ) = 2 E k
2 2 2 2

ℏ
All electron states with energies between E and E+dE are located in spherical
shells with radii between k and k+dk and volumes of 4 π k 2 dk . Thus, the number of
electron states
2 3 2
4 π k dk L k
= dk
( )
3 2
2π 2π
L
If two electron spins are taken into account, the sum becomes
3 2
Lk
2
dk
2π
2 2
ℏ k
Given the equation E k = , the number of electron states per volume energized
2 mo
between E and E+dE is

( )
2 3 1
k 1 2mo 2 2
g ( E ) dE= 2 dk = 2 2
E dE
π 2π ℏ
Pauli's principle states that in one physical system there cannot be two or more
electrons that have exactly the same set of quantum numbers. This prohibition principle
is satisfied by electrons that follow the distribution function
Fermi-Dirac
1
f ( E )= f ( E −E )
1+ e kT
At temperature T=0 K, the Fermi energy is expressed in the form EF(0); and
Fermi-Dirac distribution function
1
For E< E f ( 0 ) → f ( E )= −∞
=1
1+e
1
For E> E f ( 0 ) → f ( E )= ∞
=1
1+e

8
 In other words, at temperature T=0 K all energy levels E<EF(0) are fully filled
with electrons and E>EF(0) is empty. Whereas at a temperature of T>0 K the following
applies
for E < EF → f(E) < 1
for E = EF → f(E) = 1/2
for E > EF → f(E) > 0

This means that at T>0 K the energy levels above EF are partially filled and
below EF become partially empty.
The quantized free electron model takes the following assumptions.
e. A metal crystal is described as a superposition of an array of positive ion
clusters (which form the crystal lattice) and free electrons that move in the
crystal volume.
f. The free electrons meet the rules of quantum physics, which have quantized
energy and obey Pauli's prohibition, which is unitedly summarized in the
expression electron density.
dn=n(E)dE=f (E)g(E)dE
By substituting, the expression for the electron density as a function of
electron energy and system temperature is obtained.
1

( )
3
1 2 mo 2 E2
dn= 2 2 ( E− Ef )
dE
2π ℏ
1+ e kT
g. The effect of the positive ion field can be ignored because the kinetic energy
of free electrons is very large.
h. At the boundary surface between the metal and the vacuum surrounding it,
there is a potential barrier ϕ that the most energetic free electron at
temperature T=0 K (EF energy) must jump to leave the metal boundary
surface.

2.4. Free Electron Contribution to CV Price

Simple crystal structures of general interest: the sodium chloride, cesium
chloride, hexagonal close-packed, diamond, and cubie zinc sulfide structures.
Electron density at temperature T=0 K

[ ] [ ]
∞ ∞ EF 0 3 1 3
1 2 m0 1 2m0 E F (0)
n=∫ n ( E )=∫ f ( E ) g ( E ) dE= ∫
2 2 2
2 2
E dE= 2 2
0 0 0 2π ℏ 3π ℏ
and energy density at temperature T=0 K

[ ] [ ]
∞ ∞ E F0 1 3 3
1 2m0 2 2 1 2 m0 2
U 0 =∫ Edn=∫ Ef ( E ) g ( E ) dE=∫ 2 2
E dE= 2 2
0 0 0 2π ℏ 5π ℏ
If expressed in terms of density If expressed in terms of electron density then,
3
U 0 = n EF ( 0 )
5
Meanwhile, the electron energy density at temperature T>0 K

[ ] [ ]
∞ ∞ 3 3 ∞
1 2m0 2 1/ 2 1 2 m0 2
3 /2
1 E
U =∫ Ef ( E ) g ( E ) dE=∫ E (E− E )/ kT 2 2
E dE=¿ 2 2 ∫ 1+ e(E− E )/ kT
dE ¿
0 0 1+e F
2π ℏ 2π ℏ 0
F

9
 ∞ j
y
To complete, use the integral form F f ( y 0 ) =¿ ∫
( y− y ¿)
¿
1+e 0 dy 0

Which has an asymptotic form for large yo and has a positive value

(
y 0j +1
)
2
π j( j+ 1)
F f ( y0) ≅ 1+
j+1 6 y 20
It is known that the expression for the Fermi energy as a function of temperature

is E F =EF (0) 1−
( ( πkT )2
2
12 E F (0) )
Because of the form [ (π kT )2 / EF2 (0) ] is very small compared to one, then EF can
always be replaced by EF(0). By using shapes F f ( y 0 ) =¿

( )
∞
yj ( πkT )2
∫ 1+e( y− y ¿) dy ∧E F= EF (0) 1− 12 E2 (0) ¿ and the binomial series (1+x)p, and
0
0 F

paying attention to expressions

[ ] [ ]
∞ ∞ E 3 1 3
1 2 m0 2 2 1 2m0 E F (0) 2
F0

n=∫ n ( E )=∫ f ( E ) g ( E ) dE= ∫ 2 2

E dE= 2 2
0 0 0 2π ℏ 3π ℏ

[ ] [ ]
∞ ∞ E F0 31 3
1 2m0 2 2 1 2 m0 2
and U 0 =∫ Edn=∫ Ef ( E ) g ( E ) dE=∫ 2 2
E dE= 2 2
0 0 0 2π ℏ 5π ℏ
3
, then the energy density U 0 = n EF ( 0 )
5
2 2 2
nπ k T
above can be calculated and the result is U =U 0 +
4 Ep
2 2 2
nπ k T
so the heat capacity of free electrons (C v ) el=∂ U /∂ T =
2Ep
If the free electron heat capacity of the classical model (C v ) el then expression
2 2 2
nπ k T
(C v ) el=∂ U /∂ T = for one mole of a substance becomes
2Ep
2
π kT
(C v ) el= (C v )el
3 Ep
It appears that free electrons contribute to the CV value for the crystal reduced by
a factor [ (π 2 kT )/3 EF ] from the classic price. It can be concluded that the
contribution of free electrons to the CV value of a metal is very small, especially
at very high temperatures. But the contribution will be dominant at a fairly low
temperature. At temperatures well below the Debye temperature θD and the
Fermi temperature TF, the capacity the heat of a metal can be written as the sum
of the donations of free electrons and electrons phonons, that is C v =γT + A T 3
where γ and A are material characteristic constants. Experimentally can be made
a graph of CV/T against T 2so that γ and A can be determined.

10
2.5. Heat Capacity of Conduction Electrons
In the free electron model conduction electrons are treated as free particles that
obey the laws of classical mechanics, electromagnetic, tromagnetic, and statistical
mechanics. We have already mentioned the difficulties in treating collisions in this
model, and also how we should consider them quantum concept with the aim of
saving the model. Other difficulties appears in relation to the heat capacity of
conduction electrons.
Calculate the heat capacity per mole for conduction electrons on the basis
from the Drude Lorentz model. It is known from the kinetic theory of gases that Free
3
particles in a mat in equilibrium at temperature T have average energy of kT .
2
Therefore the average energy per mole is ⟨ E ⟩ =N ( 2 kT )=2 RT where N A is
A

Avogadro's number and N A K .

[E] 3
Electron heat capacity C e =δ , so C e = R ≅ 3 cal /mol0 K .
δT 2
The total heat capacity in the metal, including phonons, should be
C e =C ρh +C e which, at high temperatures,

3
has a value C=3 R+ R = 4,5R≅ 9 cal/mol0 K .
2

Experiments in heat capacity in metals are shown, however, that C is very

closely comparable to 3R at high T, as is the case in insulators. Accurate calculations
of the contribution of electrons to the total isolated heat capacity show that C eis
3
smaller compared to the classical value R by a factor of about 10-2. To explain this
2
oddity, we must once again return to the quantum concept.
The energy of electrons in a metal is quantized according to mechanics
quantum. Figure 5.4(a) shows quantum energy levels. Internal electrons metal
occupies this level. In doing this, they follow a very important quantum principle, the
Pauli exclusion principle, according to levels energy can accommodate at most two
electrons, one with spin up, and others with spin down. Thus in filling energy levels,
two electrons occupy the lowest level, two advanced levels, and so on, until all the
electrons in the metal are accommodated as shown in Figure 5.4(a). The energy that
occupies the highest level is called the Fermi energy level (or more simply Fermi). We
will evaluate the Fermi level in section 4.7. A typical value for the Fermi energy in
metals is about 5 eV.

11
 Figure 5.4

(a) Position of energy levels according to Pauli's exclusion principle.

(b) Function distribution of f (E) with respect to E , at T = 0 0 K and T > 0 0 K

This state describes the uptake in the metal when T = 0 0 K . Even at the
lowest possible temperature, the electron system has a the amount of energy that is
meaningful, meaningful, with the goodness of the principle of prohibition.
prohibition. If it's not it's not for this principle, all electrons will fall into the lowest
level, and energy the total system would be meaningless. This conformity to the
demands, is usually made in classical mechanics, as T → 0 0 K all movement stops,
and energy is lost. This requirement clearly does not apply to conduction electrons.
The distribution of electrons between levels is usually described by a
function distribution, f (E)which is defined as the probability that level E is occupied
by an electron. Therefore if the level is empty, then f ( E )=0 , whereas if it is full, then
f (E)= 0. In general, f (E)has a value between zero and one.

This follows from the previous discussion that the distribution function
for electrons at T = 0 0 K have the shape

f ( E )=
{
1 , E< E F
0 , EF < E
That, all levels below E F are completely filled, and all above E F
completely empty. This function is plotted in Figure 5.4(b), which shows the
discontinuity shows the discontinuity in the uity energy at the Fermi energy.
We have a treatment restriction at absolute zero temperature.
When the system is heated (T > 0 0 K ), the thermal energy excites
electrons. However this energy is not shared equally by all the electrons, as it would
be to be the case in the classical treatment, because the electrons are well located

below the Fermi level E F cannot absorb energy. If they do so, they will move
on to a higher level, which has been occupied, and therefore the hope of prohibition
will be disturbed. Recall this context that the energy in an electron can be thermally
absorbing on the order of kT ( = 0.025 eV at room temperature), which will be smaller
than E F , this being of the order of 5 eV. Therefore only electrons close to the Fermi
level can be excited, because the level above E F is empty and because when the
electron moves to higher level, there will be no interference with the principle of

12
 prohibition. Thereby, only these electrons are a small fraction of the total number
allows it to be thermally excited, and this explains the low heat specific electronics (or
specific electronics (or heat capacity).

The distribution function f (E) at temperature T ≠ 0 0 K is given by

1
f ( E )= (E −E F )/ kT
e +1
Use the distribution function (5.6) to evaluate the thermal energy and by
because it is the heat capacity of electrons, but this is a natural takeover that
boring, so soon we will try to obtain one a good approximate estimate with a
minimum of mathematical effort. Because only electrons within the kT range of the
Fermi level are excited, we conclude that only a fraction kT / E F of electrons are
made. Therefore the number of excited electrons per mole is about NA ¿, and since
each electron absorbs an energy kT , on average, the thermal energy per mole given
e kT
approx by E=N A ¿ ¿ and the specific heat C =∂ E/∂ t is Ce =2 R
EF
We see that the specific heat of the electron is reduced from its classical
value, where order R, with factors kT / E F . For E F = 5 Ev and T = 3000 K , this factor
is the same with 1/200. This large reduction is in agreement with experiment,
as stated previously.
So it is called the Fermi temperature T F , which is usually used in this
context, is defined as E F =k T F, and the specific heat can be written
T
as C e =2 R
TF
A typical value for T F based on E F= 5 eV, is 60,0000 K . Therefore it is for
the specific heat of the electrons in a solid to reach a value. Classically, the solid
must be heated to a temperature comparable to that of T F . But this is impossible, of
course, as solids would survive because it has melted melted and evaporated! All
experimental temperature temperatures, experiments, by therefore, the specific heat
of electrons is very far below its classical value.
Another interesting conclusion from (4.32) is that the heat capacity C eof
electrons is a linear function of temperature. It's not like that heat capacity of the
grille C L, where is constant at high temperatures, and proportional proportional at
T low temperature.
3

2
π kT
A definitive evaluation of the heat capacity of electronics provides C e = R
2 EF
which is very clearly of the same order as the magnitude of the estimated statement.

2.6. Electrical Conductivity in Metals

The electron that has a great mobility to move to another electron state is an electron that
energizes E so that f(E)<1.

13
This occurs in the E∼EF area. Such electrons will flow when subjected to an electric field. The
close relationship of current J and electric field ε expressed by Ohm's law

(6.1)
where σ is electrical conductivity. If the electron density is n and the drift rate of electrons vd,
then the current density can also be expressed in the form

(6..2)
In thermal equilibrium, the distribution of electrons is in a steady state of no (v), which is
independent of time. Indoor velocity, the distribution no (v) has spherical symmetry, and is called
the Fermi sphere (with the rate Fermi vF) , and its surfaceis called the Fermi surface. The speed
of electrons is random, and is related to energy through expressions
E = 1/2 m v2
represented by all points in the sphere. The total current is zero because each electron that is
velocity v always pairs with that velocity – v. The speed of electrons is huge on the surface of
Fermi. Surface Fermi no
so affected by temperature. When the temperature rises, only a few electrons pass through it.
Please note that experimental measurements show that
Fermi's spherical surface is distorted, as a result of which electrons and lattice interactions are
involved. This will be explained in the next chapter. When there is an electric field, for example,
εX in the direction of the X-axis, then the distribution of electrons changes to n(v). This change
has a position and time component. In this case the Fermi ball shifts tow

ards (-X), as shown by figure: a. Fermi ball at equilibrium; b. Fermi ball shift when subjected to
terrain
It is assumed that the speed of shifting the center point by the presence of this outer field is very
small when compared to vrms. When ε homogeneous (magnitude and direction), then the change
in electron distribution is only affected by the time component. The process that occurs is a
change in the distribution of electrons due to the influence of the outer field of the ε and the

14
scattering process that wants to restore it to its original state. The merging of these two processes
yields the continuity equation

(6.3)
where τ is the time of relaxation. This expression is often called the Boltzmann transport
equation.
In the steady state ( ∂n(v) / ∂t = 0 ) the equation (6.3) becomes

(6.4)

In the above case it is taken so that equation (6.4) becomes

(6.5)
The density of electric current that

The integral of the first term of the equation (6.6) returns zero due to the average velocity

in no(v). Thus the current density (6.6) becomes

(6.7)
Given that
a. τ=l/v, where l is the mean free pass between two collisions,

b. and

15
c. random motion of electrons so that the expression current density 3.48) changes to

(6.8)
From the electron density, after changing the variable E to v, obtained the distribution of
electrons n o (v) is nothing but

(6.9)
Substitution of the equation (6.8) and after the change of variable v to E, then the current density
(3.49) becomes :

(6.10)
Thus, given the relationship (6.10) obtained electrical conductivity

(6.11)

For temperature T=0 K, the price (-∂f(E)/∂E) is a delta Dirac function δ such that the inner
integral is (6.11)

(6.12)
And by using the expression electron density, the expression electrical conductivity (6.12) above
becomes

(6.13)
where τF is the relaxation time of an electron on a Fermi sphere. The expression electrical
conductivity above, it turns out, is the same form as the results of Drude's previous theory, both

16
 Drude's theory and the quantized free electron model suggest that electrical conductivity is only
directly proportional to
electron concentration. However, some metals with higher electron concentrations actually show
lower conductivity values. In addition, the fact is that electrical conductivity depends on
temperature, and also direction.

2.7. Electron Behavior in Metals

• Matthiessen's law
The electrical conductivity of metals depending on temperature is usually discussed in the
form of resistivity behavior ρ to temperature T. It is known that ρ=σ--1 such that
Based on conductivity (6.13), resistivity can be written

(7.1)
Electrons undergo collisions only because of imperfections in lattice regularity. These
imperfections can be:
• Lattice vibrations (phonons) of ions around the equilibrium point due to their thermal
excitation All static imperfections, such as impurities or crystal defects.
If the mechanisms of the two are considered to be mutually independent of each other, then
it can be revealed

(7.2)
where the first term of the right segment is caused by phonons and the second term by
impurities. Thus generating the expression resistivity

(7.3)
This expression is called Matthiessen's law. It appears that ρ consists of two form, i.e.
a. The ideal resistivity ρf(T) due to the scattering of electrons by phonons, so that
depending on temperature, and
b. The residual resistivity of ρi is due to the scattering of electrons by impurities (which
are independent of temperature).
At very low temperatures, scattering by phonons is negligible because amplitudo is very
small; in hal this τf→ ∞ and ρf=0 until ρ(T)=ρi are valuable constant and its value is
proportional to the concentration of impurities. At large enough temperatures, scattering by
phonons becomes dominant so that ρ(T)≅ρf(T).
At high temperatures (including room temperature), ρf(T) rises linearly with respect to T
until the metal reaches its melting point. But, at low temperatures its resistivity is
proportional to T5. The symptom of deviation from Matthiessen's law is called the Kondo
effect. For example, ρ has a minimum value at low temperature at a certain amount of

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 impurities of Fe dissolved in Cu. This anomalous property occurs due to the scattering of
additional electrons by the magnetic moment of the center of impurities.
• Hall Effect
The Hall effect can be discussed with the approach of the classical free electron model. Take
a look at figure 2 below. In a metal beam work two fields that are perpendicular to each
other, namely the electric field εX and the magnetic field BZ. Current IX flows in the
direction εX. due to the influence of the BZ field, the trajectory of the electron bends to
bottom, so that a lot of electrons accumulate at the bottom of the metal. At the same time,
there is a positive charge at the top due to lack electron. Thus a Hall εY electric field
occurs. when the state is stationary, εY is constant and the electron moves in the vX
direction.
Figure 2. Hall Effect

In a state of consideration the resulting force that works on electrons ( Coulomb and Lorentz
styles) is equal to zero

(7.4)
current density in εX direction

(7.5)
thus obtained the price of the Hall constant

(7.6)
By measuring εY, JX and BZ, the conductivity electron density n can be determined.
The Hall effect can be used to determine
a. Types of charge carrier meetings (positive or negative), and
b. The conduction electron meeting that plays a role in the transmission process charge.
The expression of the Hall coefficient above indicates that RH is negative and depends only
on the density of electrons. The results of the experiment showed that

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 at room temperature the metals Li, Na, Cu, Ag, and Au have Hall constants –1 ,7.10-10, –
2 ,5.10-10, –0 ,55.10-10, –0 ,84.10-10, respectivelyand –0 ,72.10-10 volt.m3/A. But other
facts show that some metals have positive RH, and that RH, generally, depends on
temperature, time relaxation and large magnetic field. For example, the metals Zn, and Cd,
respectively has a Hall constant of +0.3.10-10, and +0.6.10-10 volts.m3/A. This indicates
that the charge carriers in both are holes. Electron mobility μ defined as the magnitude of the
speed of electron propagation
Electric field union μ=V/ε. From the current density J=nev=neμε so that a relationship can
be formed :

(7.7)
So experimentally by measuring the electrical conductivity of σ and the Hall coefficient
• Resonansi Siklotron
Take a look at Figure 3 below.

Gambar 3. Gerakan siklotron

The magnetic field causes electrons to move in a circle counterclockwise in the normal field
of the field. The frequency of cyclotron motion that occurs

(7.8)
If the signal of the electromagnet is directed perpendicular to B, then the electron absorbs its
energy. The greatest absorption speed occurs when the frequency of the signal is completely
equal to the frequency of the cyclotron
ω = ωC
Each electron moves perfectly along the circle so that absorption occurs continuously along
the trajectory. This condition is called cyclotron resonance. If ω ≠ ωC, then signal absorption
occurs only partially in motion electron. In order for the motion of electrons to remain
circular, they must restore the energy it has absorbed. The shape of the absorption curve is
shown in the following figure 4.

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 Figure 4. Sketch of absorption coefficient to frequency
From the absorption curve can be obtained the cyclotron frequency ωC. Thus the mass of
the electron m* can be measured.

Example question:
1. If N/L = 2 electrons/Å = 2 x 108 electrons/cm, determine the Fermi energy for this system!
Answer:
Use the equation:

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 CHAPTER III
CLOSING
3.1. Conclusion
Drude (1900) supposes that in metals there are free electrons, which form a
classical electron gas system, which move randomly in the crystal with a random speed
vo due to thermal energy and change their direction of motion upon collision with metal
ions. Due to their much larger mass, the metal ions are not affected in this collision.
We can calculate the kinetic energy of electrons in the nth level from the equation

( )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
ℏ nπ n ℏ π n h
En = = 2
= 2
2m L 2mL 8mL
The energy that occupies the highest level is called the Fermi energy level.

3.2. Sugesstion
Free electron dynamics play a central role in the understanding of solid physics.
Through these studies, we gain deep insight into the behavior of electrons in crystal
lattices. Free electrons, which move without interference from external fields, make an
important contribution to the properties of matter, such as electrical and thermal
conductivity. By understanding their dynamics, we can explain phenomena such as low
conductivity in insulators and high conductivity in metals. In addition, the concept of
free electron dynamics forms the basis for understanding more complex phenomena,
such as superconductivity. Thus, a deep understanding of free electron dynamics allows
us to forecast and design various technological applications involving solid-materials.

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 REFERENCES

F. J. Blatt, 1968, Physics of Electron Conduction in Solids, New York : McGraw- Hill
Parno.2006.”Fisika Zat Padat”.Malang : Departemen Pendidikan Nasional Universitas Negeri
Malang.

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