UNDERSTANDING THE SELF than three sides could not be a agrees that we are nothing but

UNIT 1 triangle. In the case of human layers and finds this reasonable
beings, this essentialist view and healthy.
PHILOSOPHICAL SELF
usually translates into the claim
that things like intelligence, humor,  This idea says that humans are
What is philosophy?
morality, reason, and language are many layers that function at
 The branch of knowledge or
distinctively and essentially human.  Various times in life
academic study devoted to the
They are what define us and mark  Life is such that we need to be able
systematic examination of basic
us out as different from other to react in many different ways
concepts such as truth, existence,
animals.  This is consistent with the idea that
reality, causality, and freedom.
there are no moral absolutes or
 A precept, or set of precepts,
ACCORDING TO JUDAIC AND CHRISTIAN certain truth.
beliefs, principles, or aims,
TRADITIONS  We have no fixed essence as
underlying somebody's practice or
human beings
conduct.
 Humans are made in the image and  We live in the moment and create
likeness of God. our own selves moment by
What do you think is your meaning life
 Animals may have instincts and moment
(Philosophy in life)?
intelligence but they are not made  As we choose our path, we are
in God’s likeness. accountable for our choices
 It usually depends on a philosophy
 We are self-conscious.  “You create a self for yourself.”
of life that you believe in and hold
 We have the capacity to love. Mitchell, 1995
on to.
 We have fleshy outward  “I am the master of my fate; I am
appearance but inside we share the captain of my soul.” (From
the divine nature. “Invictus” by William Ernest Henley
– 19th cent)
ACCORDING TO THE GREEK  Life has no inherent meaning – no
RATIONALIST TRADITION core to give purpose or direction.
You can be anything you want to
 Reason is at the core of our being. be. But you have no one to blame
 Our reasoning ability sets us apart but yourself. Mitchell, 1995
from other terrestrial beings.  You are the master of your fate.
 Reason controls emotions &  Do we have a clearer view of
appetites. ourselves as human persons?
 We may act like animals at times,  Do we find our existence
but only because we are not using meaningful?
reason to control the other parts of  If we do, then how deep and how
ESSENTIALISM EXISTENTIALISM our being. wide have we shared our
eternal and individual  Humans alone are capable of living meaningful life with others?
unchangeable existence, according to reason.  Only you and I can measure it.
human nature freedom and
choice ACCORDING TO THE THEOCENTRIC EXISTENTIALISM (SELF-CREATED SELF)
TRADITION
PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES OF (ST. AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO)  Emphasizes individual existence,
THE HUMAN PERSON AND THE SELF freedom, and choice.
 The most important part of a  Views that humans define their
THE ESSENTIALIST /AVOCADO VIEW person is the inner person, i.e., the own meaning in life.
mind.  Views that man is able to make
• An avocado-  Ethically, the most important part rational.
• pear-shaped tropical fruit of the mind is not the intellect (or  Decisions despite his existence in
• yellowish flesh reason) but the will. an irrational Universe.
• a single large seed at the center
EXISTENTIALIST / PROTEAN VIEW PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS OF THE SELF
 The seed at the center contains all (OR ARTICHOKE OR CABBAGE
the essential information about VIEW)
what makes an avocado an
What is a Human Person?
avocado.  Named after Proteus – the shape
 A person is a being
–shifter of Greek mythology (green
ESSENTIALISM tree,a blind man, blinding fire) characterized by consciousness,
depending on the situation rationality, and a moral sense,
 The claim that human nature is demanding him to change forms. and traditionally thought of as
determined by the set of necessary consisting of both a body and a
and sufficient properties of mind or soul.
humanness, coupled with the claim  The kind of being that has the
that the properties that are part of
moral right to make its own life
human nature are distinctive of
human beings.
choices and to live its life
 The essence of being a triangle, without being
for example, would be ‘having provoked/interfered by others
three sides’. Any object that had  Like an artichoke or cabbage, as
more the layers are removed, one finds
there is no central core, this view
What is the Self? obtaining answers, and to focus on self-development
criticizing the answers than material wealth.
 A complete and individual  It involves solving a problem by
personality, especially one that breaking it into a series of THE VIEWS OF PLATO
somebody recognizes as his or questions. The answers are (428-348 BC)
her own and with which there usually brought forward by the GREEK PHILOSOPHER
is a sense of facility or ease. answer that the seeker required.
 Your self is your basic The formulation of hypothesis PLATO
personality or nature, especially in today’s scientific method
considered in terms of what you derives from this approach.
are really like as a person. Your “If the world is not perfect, it is not
self is the essential part of your TYPES OF SOCRATIC QUESTIONS because of God or the ideals, but
very nature which makes you because the raw materials were
different from everyone else not perfect.”
and everything else.
 Understanding the  Plato came from an affluent and
philosophical underpinnings of politically inclined clan in
the formation of the Self allows Athens. He was into grammar,
us to develop an understanding music and gymnastics. Also he
and enjoyment of things, the was trained by renowned
absence of which, impoverishes teachers during his time. His wit
many lives. and modest character were
 Such things as aesthetic widely known and he had a long
experiences, communication standing mentoring relationship
with different kinds of people, with Socrates.
lively discussions of current  Plato founded the Academy on
issues, discerning observations a plot land containingasacred
of human behavior, and grovejustoutsidethecitywalls of
intellectual zests. ancient Athens which had once
 In these and other ways, the belonged to the Athenianhero
[Link] Academy was
study of philosophy
one of the earliest and most
immeasurably contributes to famous and organizedschools
academic pursuits.  Socrates believed in the in Western Civilizations and
immortality of the soul, and was the prototype for later
THE VIEWS OF SOCRATES claimed that God had sent him universities.
(470–399 BC) as adivine emissary. He also  Plato was bitterly disappointed
GREEK PHILOSOPHER said that virtue cannot be
with the standards displayed by
taught, similar to how
successful military fathers
those who were in public office,
SOCRATES so he intended to train young
cannot produce sons withtheir
own qualities. men in Philosophy and the
 For Socrates, MORAL sciences in order to create
EXCELLENCE was a divine legacy better statesmen, as well as to
“As for me, all I know is that than parental nurturing. continue the work of his former
I know nothing.”  Socrates never asked people to teacher Socrates.
be wise, instead he asked them  Plato denied the existence of
“There is only one good - to follow the path of a lover of the outside worldand reduced
knowledge,and one evil – wisdom. He often thought of
it to representations of
ignorance.” subjectivity. For him, ideas
himself as a true matchmaker, were available to us through
but distinguished himself from a thought, while phenomena are
 He was one of the founders of panderer. available to us through our
Western Philosophy. Plato  The SELF emerges , according to senses. So, naturally , thought
portrayed him as the foremost Socrates , when humans is a vastly superior means to
contributor in the field of ethics. possess certain virtues and get to the truth.
His most important contribution leads a virtuous life. And, such  “There’s the body , which is
to the Western intellectual life is spent in the search of material, mortal and moved.
process was his Socratic goodness to be better and Then, there’s the soul, which is
method which he used in ideal, immortal andunmoved.”
happier.
various occasions to examine  For Plato, The Self emerges as
 Virtues (the qualities of being
the concepts like justice and one that utilizes ideas which
morally good or righteous) are
goodness. had been well thought of and
the most valuable possessions
 Socratic method is a method of utilizes one’s senses to
of human beings and life the
reasoning: a means developed recognize the truth.
pursuit of should be spent in
by Socrates of arriving at the the search of goodness. The
truth by continually questioning, best way to live a happier life is
 THE VIEWS OF SAINT THE VIEWS OF MAURICE  The central claim of what is
AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO(354-430 MERLEAU-PONTY often called Cartesian dualism,
AD) PHILOSOPHER, THEOLOGIAN (1908–1961) in honor of Descartes, is that
BISHOP AND DOCTOR OF THE FRENCH PHILOSOPHER AND the immaterial mind and the
CHURCH material body, while being
PUBLIC INTELLECTUAL
ontologically distinct
substances, causally interact.
ST. AUGUSTINE MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY  Descartes held that the
immaterial mind and the
“We know not through our material body are two
intellect but through our completely different types of
experience.” substances and that they
“The way to God was to look into interact with each other. He
oneself.” reasoned that the body could
 Merleau-Ponty posited that be divided up removing a leg
 St. Augustine affirmed that the anything in this world had a or arm, but the mind or soul
world was created by God from rigorous methodic, and were indivisible.
unrelenting feature under  According to Descartes, the
nothing: only through a free
scrutiny. Self emerges as the human
act of His will. Time is a being person who, not only
of reason founded in the things  He emphasized the body as the
primary site of knowing the possessed a good mind, but
that offer the mind the concept used it well too.
world (a corrective to the long
of time such as past, present philosophical tradition of  To enhance one’s self one can
and future. Augustine affirmed placing consciousness as the read good books to be able to
the absolute unity and source of knowledge) and carry conversations with the
spirituality of the human soul. maintained that the body and finest minds of past
 He affirmed that the soul was that which it perceived could [Link] Self is a real
simple and immortal. He not be disentangled from each seeker of truth.
other.  He also postulated that we
further believed that the
 According to Ponty, the self should doubt.
sensitive soul, besides having  René Descartes, the originator
the five senses, was also emerges as one that perceives
the world and his existence in of Cartesian doubt, put all
endowed with a sensitive beliefs, ideas, thoughts, and
the world, as he looks at the
cognition which was common world through one’s body matter in doubt. He showed
among animals. which is involved in one’s that his grounds, or reasoning,
 Three Functions of the existence. for any knowledge could just
Intellective Soul: as well be false. Sensory
a. Being THE VIEWS OF RENÉ DESCARTES experience, the primary mode
b. Understanding (1596–1650) of knowledge, is often
FRENCH MATHEMATICIAN AND erroneous and therefore must
c. Loving
PHILOSOPHER, FATHER OF be doubted.
 These three functions  The only thing that he
corresponded with: MODERN PHILOSOPHY
believed he could be certain of
a. intellective memory was that he was doubting,
RENÉ DESCARTES
b. intelligence leading to his famous phrase.
c. will “The human mind has  "Cogito ergo sum."(I think,
 Among the three functions, principles or a priori therefore I am)
primacy was given to the will, knowledge, independent
which signifies love in man. The of experience.” THE VIEWS OF JOHN LOCKE
(1632-1704)
only true evil, according to St.
 He was educated in a scholastic BRITISH PHILOSOPHER, OXFORD
Augustine, is moral evil, sin, an
tradition which combined ACADEMIC AND MEDICAL
action contrary to the will of RESEARCHER
scholastic tradition with the
God.
Philosophy ofAristotle.
 “ The cause of moral evil is not JOHN LOCKE
 He built his own
God, who is infinite Holiness, interconnected system of
nor is it matter, for matter is a knowledge, which comprised
creature of God; and hence knowledge of metaphysics,
good. Neitheris the will as a physics and other sciences.
faculty of the soul evil for it too  Three Principles of Science: “All mankind…beingall equal and
[Link] independent,no one ought to harm
has been created by God.”
b. mechanics another in his life, liberty, or
 “The cause of moral evil is the
[Link] possession.”
faculty of free will, by which
 Physics grounded the applied
man is able to deviate from the “All knowledge comes from
sciences of medicine (the
right order to oppose himself to experience.”
science of the human body),
the will of God.” mechanics (the science of  He was an empiricist all
machine) and morals ( the knowledge is derived from the
science of the embodiedmind). experience of the senses.
 He emphasized on the who claimed that all that can was used to observe them. Mental
philosophical examination of be known emanates from concepts can explain the behaviors
the human mind as a what we have seen, and not one manifests.
preliminary to the through something that can  Therefore the self emerges as
philosophical investigation of only be appreciated human behaviors unfold as it
the world and its contents. intellectually.” reflects one’s innate Self
 Our mind is capable of  He believes that the self emerges conception; it emerges as one
examining, comparing and as one accumulates recurring manifests behaviors descriptive of
combining these ideas in experiences as such that these inner dreams, hopes, aspirations
numerous ways. Knowledge experiences had been internalized and wishes.
consists of a special kind of and became part of one’s
relationship between different personhood. THE VIEWS OF PAUL
ideas. CHURCHLAND
 He used the theory of natural THE VIEWS OF SIGMUND FREUD (1942-PRESENT) CANADIAN
rights to argue that (1856—1939) PHILOSOPHER,
government had obligations AUSTRIAN NEUROLOGIST AND THE NEURO-PHILOSOPHY AND THE
and limited powers over their FOUNDER OF PSYCHOANALYSIS PHILOSOPHY OF THE MIND
citizens, and can be
overthrown by citizens under SIGMUND FREUD PAUL CHURCHLAND
certain circumstances. He also
provided powerful arguments
in favor of religious toleration,
allowing other people to think “The brain is the engine of reason
or practice other religions and and the seat for the soul.”
beliefs. “One day in retrospect, the years  Paul Churchland believed that
 He believed that the Self of struggle will strike you as the folklores and mythical beliefs
emerges through experiences. most beautiful.” are fallacious for they are not
The self is crystallized when an  Freud believed that the anchored on scientific and
individual exercises the human behavior was neurological explanations.
principles of freedom which propelled by the drive to find  He believed that folklores such
protects individual property. pleasurable experiences. He as everyday beliefs, practices,
described this as a sexual and rituals which were passed
THE VIEWS OF IMMANUEL KANT nature. He believed that this to subsequent generations,
(1724–1804) was the foundation of every are invalid because they
GERMAN PHILOSOPHER human development. He cannot be reduced to
postulated that each human neuroscientific phenomenon.
behavior was motivated by  Paul Churchland posited that
IMMANUEL KANT seeking pleasure. Irregularities the Self emerges not as
in one’s behavior could be something that is theoretically
interpreted as a lack in the founded, but as data
gratifications of said motives innervated, since the Self
“Science is organized knowledge. which probably was not within cannot be a product of
Wisdom is organized life.” the individual’s realm of imagination and opinions but
awareness. of empirical observations.
 As a philosophical idealist,  The Self emerges as one that
Kant believed that everything strives to address unmet CONCLUSION
depended on how individuals needs and finds pleasurable
Interprets and responds to experiences to gratify one’s  The concept of the self has
his environment based on needs as determined by his
their personal opinions and been explored by
aspirations, instincts—as he
feelings. philosophers throughout
goes through the different
 The Self emerges as a stages of growth and
history, leading to a variety
crystallized knowledge of one development. of viewpoints. With this in
self and others based on one’s mind, it is up to us to relate
recurring observations. THE VIEWS OF GILBERT RYLE (1900— and conceive of our
1976) philosophical view of our
THE VIEWS OF DAVID HUME BRITISH PHILOSOPHER own selves.
(1711–1776)
SCOTTISH PHILOSOPHER AND GILBERT RYLE
HISTORIANNN

DAVID HUME
“ A person can see things only when his
eyes are open, and when his
surroundings are illuminated, but he can
“A wise man proportions his belief have pictures in his mind’s eye, when his
to the evidence.” eyes are shut and the world is dark.”
 David Hume professed the  He posited that anything perceived
same philosophy with John by the human senses can be
Locke. He is also an empiricist explained though the behavior that
 UNIT 2: Goffman developed the
THE SOCIAL SELF term Dramaturgy.
 Dramaturgy is impression
 Through interaction with [Link]
their social and cultural interactions is like a stage,
environments, people are the self promotes scenery
transformed into divided into two regions,
participating members of the Front Regions (front JOHN LOCKE
their society. Others help stage) and Back Regions.
develop you. (back stage).  English philosopher
from the 1600’s.
“There are two populations in  Insisted each newly
this world: You and others.” born human being is a tabula rasa
• “blank slate”
• No personality
• Newborns could be
molded into anything
with training.

GEORGE HERBERT MEAD

 We stage manage our (SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM)
interactions to achieve the
desired response in others.  Mead believed that social
interaction plays an important role
 It can either be “managed”
in the development of the self.
(dress, ways of sitting, facial Through 'play' and 'game,' we not
expressions) or “given off” only develop this sense of self, but
(unconscious twitches, also an understanding of the social
blushes, bodily language) roles that surround us.
 At one extreme, we are
fully taken by our
performance; our
roles.
 At others, we are very
cynical of our role and so,
develop role distance
and detach oneself from
the expectations of
SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES others.
IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF  People learn intersubjective
THE SELF scripts about different  The generalized other is a concept
appropriateness of ways of of Mead in which children are able
Erving Goffman and the Social acting in situations and how to not only take on the roles of
Self (self as a performer) others, but also take into account
they develop “back regions”
the attitudes perspectives of
or “back stage.”
others in their social group. The
 Ex: In a restaurant, the emergence of the generalized
kitchen is the back stage other requires the presence of
area in which waiters can some type of organized community
 Goffman (1959) in his book joke, mock customers and or social system, whether it be a
entitled “The Presentation toy with the food. When baseball team or an organized
of Self in Everyday Life” they come through the family system.
claimed that one' s culture door into the restaurant’s  As the self gradually develops,
plays a role in developing front stage, they are children internalize the
social behaviors and one's expectations of a large number of
supposed to slip effortlessly
self identity insociety. people. Now they develop the
into the controlled
ability to take the role "the group
 Goffman argues that the performance of the as a whole" to this our perception
self is simply nothing more attentive waiter. of how in general think of us, Mead
than “self presentations” gives the term generalized other”.
and “role performances.”
 Social life as a theatre, with
social scripts, performances
and actors & roles that
perform in the Front and
Back Regions of self.
 The concept of depicting
social life as a Theatre,
 TWO SIDES OF SELF: ME & I  Construal is the act of construing,
interpreting, or interpretation.
 According to Mead's theory, the People in different cultures have
self has two sides or phases: 'me' strikingly different construals of
and 'I.' the self, of others, and of the
interdependence of these two.
 The 'me' is considered the These construals can influence and
socialized aspect of the individual. determine the very nature of
The 'me' represents learned individual experiences including
behaviors, attitudes, and cognition, emotion, and
expectations of others and of motivation.
society.  The independent self construals
 The 'I', therefore, can be describe themselves in
considered the present and future psychological terms such as:
phase of the self. The 'I' • “I am sincere"
represents the individual's identity • separation of self and society
based on response to the 'me.' • autonomous and agentic
 The 'me' and the 'I' have a didactic  As such, the European-American
(instructive) relationship. identity is geared towards attaining
personal goals and
THE ROLE OF SOCIALIZATION IN individualization of The Self.
SOCIAL SELF THE FORMATION OF THE SELF  The connected/interdependent self
construals describe themselves in
 Mead's theory of the social self is  There are only two populations in social terms such as:
basedon the perspective that the this world; you and others. The • “I am a student at UNO-R"
self emerges from social self is a product of an individual' s • embedded in a network of social
interactions, such as: interaction with society among relations
• observing and interacting with others other constructions. Since we are • group agency and collective change
• responding to others' opinions about social beings, we like to interact  Asian and African identities are
oneself with others, and we somehow geared towards living in harmony
• and internalizing external opinions imprint our thoughts and ideas in the social and environmental
and internal feelings about oneself. upon others from these context and enhancing the
interactions. collective life of the community.
 The social aspect of self is an  Socialization: the interactive  Asian cultures have distinct
important distinction because process through which people conceptions of individuality that
other sociologists and learn insist on the fundamental
psychologists felt that the self was • Basic skills relatedness of individuals to each
based on biological factors and • Values other. The emphasis is on
inherited traits. • Beliefs attending to others, fitting in, and
 According to Mead, the self is not • Behavior patterns of a society harmonious interdependence. In
there from birth, but it is • Within socialization, a person develops contrast, individuals seek to
developed over time from social a sense of self maintain their independence from
experiences and activities. • Conscious awareness of possessing a others by attending to the self and
distinct identity that separates you from by discovering and expressing their
DEVELOPMENTAL SELF other members of society. unique inner attributes.

 According to Mead, three

activities develop the self:
language, play, and games.

Language develops self by allowing

individuals to respond to each other
through symbols, gestures, words, and
sounds.
Play develops self by allowing
individuals to take on different roles,
pretend, and express expectation of THE INTERACTION OF CULTURE,  Triandis (2003) view that
others. Play develops one's SOCIETY AND THE SELF (SELF- collectivist cultures are more likely
self-consciousness through role-playing. CONSTRUAL, CULTURAL ORIENTATION) to define themselves as aspects of
Games develop self by allowing groups, give priority to in-group
individuals to understand and adhere to  Markus and Kitayama ( 1991) goals, focus on context more than
the rules of the activity. Self is claimed that those who have content attributions and in
developed by understanding that there independent self-construals define communications, pay less attention
are rules in which one must abide by in themselves in terms of internal to internal processes as
order to win the game or be successful attributes such as traits, abilities, determinants of social behavior,
at an activity. values, and preferences. In define most relationships within
contrast, those with group members as communal,
interdependent self-construals make more situational attributions,
define themselves in terms of their and tend to be self-effacing.
relationships with others.
 Individualist cultures, on the other and in which doubt is increasingly
hand, see The Self as fully placed on the very assumption of a
autonomous, but recognizes that bounded identity with palpable
inequality exists among individuals, attribute. (Gergen, 1991).
and that accepting this is inequality.
On the other hand, they see The THE SELF IN WESTERN AND
Self as fully autonomous, and EASTERN THOUGHTS
believing that equality between
individuals is the ideal.
 Mbiti (1970) observed that the
African community has the cultural
orientation of the collective self,
hence, has no concept of individual
self. Self is always collective and
contextual.

 Bharati (1986) of India emphasized

that in Hinduism, seeing God and
the innermost self the indivisibility
of the “true” self with the oneness
of God and that innermost self
reached through meditation and
self-discipline.
 Devos (1985) in Japan zeroed in on
social awareness and the relational
self. Parents “suffer” their
children's actions (shared grief,
social shame). The Self has a need
to belong and maintain social
balance as The Self cannot be
hidden.
 Hall (1990) introduced the
multicultural orientation; cultural
change and new identities meet
and merge. Different cultures
identity of The Self in the social
perspective is now a process of
becoming.

MODERNITY AND THE SOCIAL SELF

 The transmutations introduced by

modern institutions interlace in a
direct way with individual life and
therefore with The Self" (Giddens,
1991). Modernity breaks down the
protective framework of
community and of tradition, which
threatens the unity of Self.

 In modern societies, referring to
'societies where modernity is
well-developed' and not 'societies
today', self-identity became an
inescapable issue; everyday
questions about clothing,
appearances, leisure to highimpact
decisions about relationships,
beliefs, and occupations.
 The process of modernization leads
to new “global selves” where the
difference of culture falls away that
collectivist values and practices are
declining in Japan, while the
leadership models in the West are
recognizing the importance of
shared values and identities.
 As we enter a postmodern
consciousness, we no longer
experience a secure sense of self,
 UNIT 3: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SELF 7. Culture is dynamic and adaptive; it is
relatively stable. It is subject to slow and
ANTHROPOLOGY constant changes. Change, growth, and
latent in culture.
 came from “anthropos” for
“human” and “logos” COMPONENTS OF CULTURE
for study
 a science that deals with cultural A. ELEMENTS OF CULTURE
and biological similarities and
variations 1. Cognitive elements: Cultures of all
 study human populations in all societies, whether pre-literate or literate,
periods of time, in all parts of the include a vast amount of knowledge
world about the physical and social world. The
 Anthropology is a holistic possession of this knowledge is referred
multi-faceted study of human to as the cognitive element.
behavior that seeks to understand 2. Beliefs: are principles or ideas, an
and explain what people say and  What is Culture? acceptance by the mind that something
do. is true or real, often underpinned by an
 Anthropology is a social science “The cumulative creation of man, and emotional or spiritual sense of certainty.
that is concerned with human the handiwork of man and the medium 3. Values and Norms: Values may be
culture and the physical and social through which he achieves his ends” defined as measures of goodness of
characteristics that create culture. -B. Malinowski desirability. They are the conceptions of
It often compares one group of relative desirability of things. Norms are
humans to another. “That complex whole which includes shared rules that specify what is right or
 Different cultures produce knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, wrong and the inappropriate and
different packaging of The Self. custom, and any other capabilities and appropriate behavior Norms can be
habits acquired by man as a member of prescriptive or proscriptive.
 TERMINOLOGIES society.” 4. Signs: Signs include signals and
-Edward B. Tylor symbols. A signal (or signs) indicates
 Dialectic: the relationship between existence- past present and future- of an
two things that can influence each “Culture is the complex whole that event or conditions.
other; a change in one requires a consists of all the ways we think, and do 5. Non-normative ways of behaving:
change in the other. and everything we have as members of Certain ways of behaving are not
 Dialogical: the mind's ability to society.” compulsory and are often unconscious.
imagine the different opinions of -Robert Bierstedt Such patterns do exist. Non-normative
participants if a internal dialogue, behavior shades over into normative
in close connection with external 1. Culture is socially learned; it is not behavior and symbolic behavior.
dialogue (Hermans,1990). biologically inherited. There is no
 Generalized others: are an cultural instinct that it is an B. CULTURE CONTENTS
individual's concept of other inborn tendency. It is often called
people; individual's internalized 'learned ways of behavior '.  Every society has a culture of its
impression of societal norms and 2. Culture is a social product. It does own. Thus, people in different
expectations (Mead, 2007). not exist in isolation nor as an individual societies have different cultures.
 Structure: a factor of influence phenomenon. It is a product of society These cultures are diverse and
(such as social class, religion, that originated and developed through unequal. Along with cultural
gender, ethnicity, ability, customs, social interactions. It is shared by the diversities and disparities found in
etc.) that determines or limits an members of society. societies throughout the world, we
agent and his or her decisions. 3. Culture is shared. It is not something observe certain cultural similarities.
 Reflexibility: the capacity of an that an individual can possess. All People may worship different gods
agent to recognize forces of members of a culture shared set of in many ways, but they all follow a
socialization that alters their place values, ideas, perceptions, and religion.
in the social structure (William standards of behaviors. This does not  They may pursue various
Thomas). A person with low mean that everyone within a culture will occupations, but they all earn a
reflexibility can be shaped by the act and think the exact same way. living. Details of their rituals,
environment while a person with 4. Culture is transmissible. It could be ceremonies, and customs may
high reflexibility creates their own transmitted from one generation to the differ, nevertheless, they all have
and is a catalyst for change in next. Parents pass culture traits to their some of these. Every culture
others. children, who in turn, pass it to their consists of such nonmaterial things.
 Culture: is the unique quality of own children. Culture is transmitted, not Similarly, people of every society
man that separates him from through genes, but through language. possess different material things.
lower animals. It includes 5. Culture is continuous and cumulative. These may be primitive, modern,
everything man has acquired in his It exists as a continuous process. It is simple, or complex. These material
individual and social life. In the cumulative in its historical growth. It is a and nonmaterial components of
words of Maciver and Page, culture “growing whole” which includes the culture are often referred to as
is the realm of styles, of values, of achievements of the past and the "the content of culture".
emotional· attachments, of present and makes provision for the
intellectual adventures." It is the future achievements of mankind.
entire “social heritage” that the 6. Culture is consistent and integrated
individual receives from the group. and at the same time, different parts of
culture are interconnected.
C. CULTURAL LAG IDENTITY AND CULTURE which are descriptive of the
independent construal of The Self.
 The extent of lag varies according  Identity is the set of characteristics  On the other hand, the
to the nature of cultural material that somebody recognizes as interdependent construal of The
and may exist for a considerable belonging uniquely to himself or Self is defined in terms of
number of years. A sudden change herself and constituting his or her relationships with others.
in one part of culture is evident individual personality for life.
due to some discovery, invention (Encarta, 2009) THE SELF AND SOCIAL CONNOTATION
etc. The maladjustment is the  Identity is the identification of self, OF EMOTION
result of strain as the balance of by self and others (Erikson, 1950).
the ordered structure breaks down It came to be understood as the  Socially disengaged emotions
for the time being. historically and culturally rooted separate the self from social
self-image of a group that was relationships while the socially
predominantly sketched and engaged emotions further
sharpened in contact vis-a-vis assimilate the self in the
other groups of people (Van-M relationship.
eiil,2008).
 As mentioned, the identity of KEY CONCEPTS OF THE INDIVIDUAL,
individuals was supposed to be SELF, PERSON IN ANTHROPOLOGY
D. MATERIAL AND NON-MATERIAL identical to the identity of the
CULTURE group he/she belongs to. This is  Individual as member of human
consistent with anthropological kind (biologistic)
1. Material culture:Material culture theories about the relation  Self as locus of experience
consists of man-made objects such as between person and group or (psychologistic)
tools, implements, furniture, community (La Fontaine,  Person as agent-in-society
automobiles, buildings, dams, roads, 1985). Another important (sociologistic)
bridges, and other physical substances aspect of identity is concerned
that was changed and used by man. It with the presupposition of OTHER IMPORTANT CONCEPTS IN
is concerned with the external, stability and permanence. UNDERSTANDING THE SELF AS A
mechanical, and utilitarian objects. It  Morris (1994) emphasized that the CULTURAL CONSTRUCT
includes technical and material self is not an entity, but a process
equipment. It is referred to as that orchestrates an individual’s A. Culture Universals
civilization. experience. As a result, he or she  Features and elements common to
2. Non - Material culture: The term becomes self-aware and all culture.
'culture', ordinarily means 'nonmaterial self-reflective about his or her  Similarities in the general features
culture'. It is internally and intrinsically place in the surrounding world. of society, rather than the
valuable and reflects the inward nature The concept of The Self may be particular or specific culture traits.
of man. Non-material culture consists of defined as an individual's mental
words the people use, the language they representation of self between B. Cultural Diversity
speak, the beliefs they hold, values and others seems to be universal (Spiro,  Refers to the wide range of
virtues they cherish, habits they follow, 1993). But this distinction varies differences in cultural
rituals and practices they do, and the from person to person. At the patterns,ideas, beliefs, knowledge,
ceremonies they observe. It also same time, it seems obvious that forms of social organization, and
includes customs, tastes, attitudes the relationship between self and practical responses to the
outlook, ways of acting, feeling, and others is also a function of culture environment.
thinking. (Shweder & Bourne, 1984).
 Indeed, the most crucial form of FACTORS THAT PROMOTE CULTURAL
E. FUNCTIONS OF CULTURE interaction and exchange takes place DIVERSITY
between the self and his or her cultural
 Culture is the treasury of environment as mediated in social  Environment
knowledge. practices (Morris, 1994), his or her own  Isolation
 Culture defines situations. person, as a self-representation, while  Technology
 Culture defines attitudes, values, the concept of others refer to the  Diffusion
and goals. mental representation of other persons.  Cultural Themes
 Culture decides our career. As the word identity refers to
 Culture provides behavior pattern. "selfsameness", disposition of basic OTHER IMPORTANT TERMS RELATED
 Culture molds personality. personality features acquired mostly TO THE CONCEPT OF SELF AS A
during childhood as much as ''ethnic CULTURAL CONSTRUCT
Fundamentally, the needs of survival are identity" or selfsameness with others
basic needs and the needs for made up the group identity. A. Cultural Relativism
adaptation are cultural response.  States the cultures differ, so that a
INDEPENDENT AND INTERDEPENDENT cultural trait,act, or idea has no
BASIC NEEDS CULTURAL RESPONSE CONSTRUAL OF THE SELF meaning or functions by itself but
1. Metabolism 1. Commissariat*
has a meaning only within its
2. Reproduction 2. Kinship
3. Bodily Comforts [Link]  Markus and Kitayama (1991) cultural setting.
4. Safety [Link] defined The Self in terms of
5. Movement [Link] internal attributes such as traits, B. Ethnocentrism
6. Growth [Link]
abilities, values, and preferences  refers to the tendency to see the
7. Health 7. Hygiene
* (definition) -- a supply of food behaviors, beliefs, values,and
and equipment
norms of one’s group as the only
 right way of living and to judge
others by those standards. It is the  Ideologywhen idea, value, norm,
belief in the inherent superiority of or other culture trait works to the
one's own ethnic group or culture. advantage of one group for any
reason.
C. Xenocentrism
 Refers to the idea that what is 3. Ecological Approach
foreign is best and that one’s  Compares the social structure of
lifestyle, products or ideas are different societies that have the
inferior to those of others. same level of hunting technology.
–Julian Steward (1955)
D. Subculture  Ecology- the study of relationship
 Refers to smaller groups between organisms and their
which develop norms, values, environment.
beliefs, and special languages  Cultural ecologyculture traits are
which make them distinct shaped by the resources and
from the broader society. limitations of the surrounding
environment and by the changes
E. Counterculture/Contra-culture in that environment.
 Refers to subgroups whose
standards come in conflict with and SYMBOLIC USES OF CULTURE
oppose the conventional standards
of the dominant culture. 1. Culture of Opulence
2. Culture of Corruption
F. Culture Shock 3. Culture of Silence
 Refers to the feeling of 4. Culture of Sabotage
disbelief, disorganization, and 5. Pop Culture
frustration one experiences 6. Culture of Apathy
when he encounters cultural 7. Culture of Conspicuous Consumption
patterns or practices different 8. Culture of Exploitation and
from his. Dehumanization
9. Culture of Poverty
G. Noble savage mentality
 Refers to the evaluation of one’s PSYCHOLOGICAL SELF
culture and that of others based on
the romantic notion that the
culture and way of life of the
primitives of other simple culture is
better, more acceptable, and more
orderly.

APPROACHES IN ANALYZING CULTURE

 It involves understanding its major

values and norms, seeing how
these are reflected in social
behavior, and perhaps studying the PSYCHODYNAMIC OR
way in which the values and norms PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVE
shape and are shaped by the
material culture.  Psychodynamic perspective is an
approach emphasizing the
APPROACHES IN CULTURAL ANALYSIS interaction of the emotional and
motivational forces that affect
1. Functionalist Approach behavior and mental states,
 Sees a particular trait as existing especially on a subconscious level.
because it serves as an important  Psychoanalysis a psychological
social function. theory and therapeutic method
 Cultural trait- simplest unit or developed by Sigmund Freud,
element of culture. based on the ideas that mental life
 Culture complex- is a system of functions on both conscious and
interrelated traits that function unconscious levels and that
together as a unit. childhood events have a powerful
 Culture patternis a specific and psychological influence throughout
enduring system of trait life. (Encarta, 2009)
complexes.

2. Ideological Approach
 This approach tries to find out
which groups support which ideas,
values, and so on, and for what
reasons.
 mental picture of self as an DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF
object that can be observed, the SELF-CONCEPT
"Me.”

 Self-image (how you see yourself):

Self-image influences how an
individual thinks, feels, and
behaves in an environment.
However, it does not necessarily
indicate reality. We might perceive
 George Herbert Mead also ourselves as either arrogant or kind
developed the concept of self, he or beautiful or ugly. A person's
explained that one's identity selfimage is influenced by many
emerges from external and social factors, such as physical
interactions and internal feelings of characteristics, personality traits,
one's self. Self is not evident at parental influences, and social
birth, but it emerges over time roles. Example: 1. Carla, an
through language, play, and games 80-year-old grandmother, believes
as discussed in Topic 2, the Social that she is still strong and alert, but
Self. in reality, she is quite weak and
clumsy. 2. A teenage girl looks thin,
but in reality, may have a selfimage
of being obese.
 Self-Esteem / Self-Worth (how
much value you place on yourself):
This includes how we compare
ourselves to others and how others
respond to us. If we receive a
positive response, we are more
likely develop positive self-esteem,
and if others perceive us as
inadequate, our self¬-esteem is
 Self is truly dynamic and intricate. negatively affected. A positive view
According to James and Mead, who of ourselves, disregarding what
we are refers to our actual self, and others may think, conveys
it is the balance of both the 'me' confidence in our abilities and
and the 'I'. manifests self-acceptance, and
thus, induces us to develop high
self esteem. On the contrary, if we
view ourselves negatively, this
inclines the opposite, which are
lack of self-confidence, pessimism,
insecurity, worrying about what
others might think.

 REAL SELF AND IDEAL SELF: 2 KINDS OF SELVES

Humanistic Psychologist, Carl
Rogers, was the proponent of the  Real self: represents actual
Self Theory. He believed that Self is experiences about what and
the humanistic term for who we who we really are, how we
really are as a person. This is made think, and how we feel and
of many perceptions and act; it makes us most
personality characteristics that are comfortable by simply being
consistent with one another. To be us.
aware of one's self is to have a  Ideal self: our conception of
concept of oneself, or otherwise who we want to be and what
known as SELFCONCEPT. The we want to become. It
answer to "WHO AM I?" is consists of our goals and
self-concept. It expresses all our ambitions in life and is
thoughts and feelings about dynamic.
ourselves.  If your ideal-self characteristics are
THE SELF AS A PSYCHOLOGICAL close to your real-self
CONSTRUCT ACCORDING TO characteristics, then, you are
SELECTED PSYCHOLOGISTS consistent or congruent, thus, you
have a higher sense of selfworth
 William James' duality theory of and you are more likely to have a
self could be categorized into the healthier self-esteem.
self as an agent that observes,
which is referred to as the
perceiver, the "I;“ and the
person's
 A person is said to be in a state of  At our center lies our true self,
incongruence if some of the which is enclosed by another circle
totality of their experience is we developed through our lives as
unacceptable to them and is protection. This outer layer is our
denied or distorted in the false self.
self-image. For example, the act of
lying shows misalignment or SIGNS OF A FULLY FUNCTIONING
incongruence between real self
PERSON
and ideal self, which may result to
mental distress brought by your
 According to Rogers, people who
negative feeling.
exhibit this tendency have a
self-image that is congruent with
reality. They understand their
strengths, but they also recognize
and acknowledge that they have
weaknesses. Even as they continue
to build upon their personal
 The earliest roots of incongruence strengths, they work on taking on
are in childhood. This is when the challenges and experiences that
parents' affection for their children allow them to grow and gain new
must also live up with the parents' understanding. These individuals
expectations, and the children realize that they are not perfect,
begin to misrepresent the but they are still happy and
memories that leave them feeling satisfied with themselves. This
unworthy of their parent's love. contentment does not indicate
 On the contrary, unconditional idleness, however, for these
love helps foster congruence and individuals are always striving to
children will feel that they are achieve their best possible selves.
loved and accepted as they are.
 A preference to see ourselves
consistently with our self-image
may make us use defense
mechanisms, like denial or
repression, to feel less threatened
by undesirable feelings.

TRUE SELF AND FALSE SELF

 Dr. Donald W. Winnicott was an

English psychoanalyst who
introduced the concepts of
TRUE SELF and FALSE SELF in
human personality.
 TRUE SELF: Also referred to as
authentic self: it describes the core
of who you are, a sense of
conscious, instinctive, and
authentic experience. This is the
part of you that is aware that, "I,
myself, feel this; I, myself, want
this," which makes the experience
uniquely yours, and therefore,
TRUE. At the same time, it is
strongly guarded by the false self
and, at first, might be difficult to
reach.
 FALSE SELF: Also referred to as a
social mask and adapted self: it is a
part of self that has modified
behavior, inhibited feelings, and
drives your needs aside to fit in
with [Link] includes the
values, feelings, and thoughts that
are not your own, which conforms
to societal and family standards.