Course name: Project Management

Instructor: Mr Thabiso Mdlovu (MscFE, BscABE)

Contact: +268 76487655/ +268 79252246

Email: [Link]@[Link]/ thabiso@springfieldresearch. University

 Chapter 1

Introduction
What is a Project?
Projects have become the new way of accomplishing and managing activities. Projects are the
temporary assemblage of key personnel designed to accomplish specific objectives with
identifiable customers in mind. A project has a beginning and an end. The project team dissolves
once the objectives are met. It is fluid and driven by the specific needs of that business. The project
approach to managing activities embraces change and complexity.

Projects can be defined in many different ways. However, there are some traits that all projects
have in common. Typically, these traits are used to identify what a project is. The most
distinguishing feature is a specific time frame. All projects have a beginning and an end. Many
efforts are called ―projects‖ but actually become programs as they extend indefinitely and cover
broader, less specific business objectives. Projects must have a clear, definitive goal or objective.
The objective is specific, identifiable, and can be accomplished. A project usually involves varied
activities, which produce quantifiable and qualifiable deliverables that when added together,
accomplish the overall objective.

➢ A project is a temporary process, which has a clearly defined start and end time, a set of
tasks, and a budget, that is developed to accomplish a well-defined goal or objective‖.
➢ A project is a temporary effort of sequential activities designed to accomplish a unique
purpose.
➢ A project is a group of inter-related activities, constrained by time, cost, and scope,
designed to deliver a unique purpose.
➢ A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product or service.
Temporary means that the project has an end date. Unique means that the project‘s result
is different from the results of other functions of the organization.
➢ ―An undertaking that encompasses a set of tasks or activities having a definable starting
point and well defined objectives. Usually each task has a planned completion data (due
date) and assigned resources‖.

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 ➢ ―A clear set of activities with related inputs and outputs aimed to achieve objectives and
goals linked to anticipated (desired) effects and impacts in a target population (sometimes
called ―beneficiaries‖)‖

According to all these definitions,

✓ A project has a beginning and an end.

✓ A project has limited resources.
✓ A project follows a planned, organized method to meet its objectives with
specific goals of quality and performance.
✓ Every project is unique
✓ A project has a manager responsible for its outcomes.

A project is a series of tasks directed towards a specific outcome/goal

A project contains a well defined objective. The project objective is defined in terms of scope (or
requirements), schedule, and cost.

➢ A project is carried out via a set of interdependent tasks.

➢ A project uses various resources to carry out these tasks.
➢ A project has a definite start date and an expected completion date. The actual
completion date may not always be the same as the expected date.

Key Characteristics of Projects;

➢ A project has boundaries, so its extent is defined.

➢ A project is a one-time effort, usually requiring finite resources.
➢ There are distinct start and end dates for projects.
➢ You know when you have reached the end of the project.

Project Plan
Project planning defines the project activities and end products that will be performed and describes
how the activities will be accomplished. The purpose of project planning is to defineeach major
task, estimate the time and resources required, and provide a framework for management review and
control. The project planning activities and goals include defining:

• The specific work to be performed and goals that define and bind the project.

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 • Estimates to be documented for planning, tracking, and controlling the project.
• Commitments that are planned, documented, and agreed to by affected groups.
• Project alternatives, assumptions, and constraints.

The planning process includes steps to estimate the size of the project, estimate the technical scope
of the effort, estimate the resour;ces required to complete the project, produce a schedule, identify
and assess risks, and negotiate commitments. Repetition of these steps is necessary to establish the
project plan. Typically, several iterations of the planning process are performed before a plan is
actually completed.

What is a Project Plan?

A project plan is a formal, approved document that is used to manage and

control a project.

The project plan forms the basis for all management efforts associated with the project. It is a
document that is also expected to change over time.

The project plan documents the pertinent information associated with the project; it is not a
verbose textual document. A template for a project plan is provided in this documentation. The
information associated with the plan evolves as the project moves through its various stages and
is to be updated as new information unfolds about the project.

The planning process consists of the following basic tasks:

➢ Define the technical approach used to solve the problem.

➢ Define and sequence the tasks to be performed and identify all deliverables associated
with the project.
➢ Define the dependency relations between tasks.
➢ Estimate the resources required to perform each task.
➢ Schedule all tasks to be performed.
➢ Define a budget for performing the tasks.
➢ Define the organization used to execute the project.
➢ Identify the known risks in executing the project.
➢ Define the process used for ensuring quality.
➢ Define the process used for specifying and controlling requirements.

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What is Project Management?

Project Management is the process of achieving project objectives (schedule, budget and
performance) through a set of activities that start and end at certain points in time and produce
quantifiable and qualifiable deliverables.

Project Management is a set of principles, methods and techniques for effective planning of
objective-oriented work, thereby establishing a sound basis for effective scheduling, controlling
and re-planning in the management of programs and projects.

Project management is the process of combining systems, techniques, and knowledge to complete
a project within established goals of time, budget and scope. Project management is a process of
leading a team of capable people in planning and implementing a series of related activities that
need to be accomplished on a specific date with a limited budget.

Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project
activities in order to meet or exceed stakeholders‘ needs and expectations.

Successful project management is the art of bringing together the tasks, resources and people
necessary to accomplish the business goals and objectives within the specified time constraints
and within the monetary allowance. Projects and Programs are linked directly to the strategic goals
and initiatives of the organization supported. In other words, it provides an organization with
powerful tools that improve the organization's ability to plan, organize, implement and control its
activities and the ways it uses its people and resources.

A project is a non-repetitive one-of-a-kind activity normally with discrete time, financial and
technical performance goals. Normally a complex effort, usually less than 3 years in duration and
it is made up of interrelated tasks performed by various organizations.

The project management tools and principles provide the means for

➢ project breakdown into tasks and sub-tasks

➢ finding interdependencies between the tasks
➢ allocating resources, human and material and smoothing resources
➢ estimation for total project duration and budget
➢ monitoring more efficiently project progress

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The basic purpose for initiating a project is to accomplish some goals. The reason for organizing
the task as a project is to focus the responsibility and authority for theattainment of the goals on
an individual (project manager) or a small group (projectteam).

Project Management is a means by which to fit the many complex pieces of the project puzzle
together, both human and technical, by use of:

✓ Schedules
✓ Budgets, including resource allocation
✓ Scope (product) definition

Project Management fulfills two purposes:

➢ Technical: Documentation techniques to communicate

✓ The 'plan'
✓ Status which compares 'planned' versus 'actual' performance
➢ Human: Managerial skills to be a better 'manager' of people as well as the project

Key Steps of Project Management

Assessing needs

Learning from the Planning the

project and project
evolving

Implementing and
Evaluating the monitoring the
project project

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Project Manager: The project manager is responsible for managing the project‘s scope,
schedule, and cost to support the owner‘s expectations for the successful completion of the project.
Typical duties include:

• Managing the development of the scope definition and project plans.

• Providing team leadership for problem resolution by working with the lowest
organizational levels possible and escalating, as necessary.
• Monitoring schedule and costs versus project progress to identify problems that could
potentially extend the schedule or overrun costs.
• Taking, directing, or recommending corrective action when scope, schedule, or cost
variances threaten the project.
• Serving as the central point of contact for the project and communicating project
status to the project owner and other stakeholders.
• Providing input to the performance reviews of the project team members.
• Negotiating a resolution to team member resource conflicts with their functional
managers.
A project manager must have a range of skills including:
• Leadership • Influencing
• Negotiation • Conflict Management
• Planning • Contract management
• Estimating • Problem solving
• Creative thinking • Time Management
• People management (customers, suppliers, functional managers and project team)
• Effective Communication (verbal and written)

Project Owner/Sponsor: The project owner or sponsor should be a director or higher-level

member of the department who is the largest stakeholder in the project or who will receive the
greatest benefit by the project‘s successful completion. The owner assumes the overall
responsibility for the entire project. The project owner will appoint a project manager to manage
and control the project. The project owner may provide the project manager the expectations of
the end product or results, the minimum success criteria, and the level of interface expected during
the project life cycle. The project owner is responsible for the following:

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 • Maintaining enough involvement with the project to ensure that the desired outcome
is attained.
• Granting a sufficient level of authority to the project manager required for the
project‘s success.
• Providing or negotiating support when the project manager is unable to resolve
problems at a lower level.
• Providing ongoing performance feedback to the project manager as well as providing
input to the project manager‘s performance review.

Project Cycle

Identification

Reviewing Monitoring
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Identification: To identify what a project will focus on, we need to find out who should benefit
and what their needs are. A ―needs assessment‖ will give an overview of community problems.
A ―capacity assessment‖ will help identify which problem the project should address.

Design: This involves carrying out further research into the people affected by a problem and how
they are affected by it. We also need to consider the risks to the project and how we will measure
the project‘s performance.

Implementation: During the implementation, it is important to monitor and review the progress
of the project and any outside changes that affect it. The project plans should be adjusted where
necessary.

Evaluation: Evaluation should be carried out at or after project completion. Evaluation could be
carried out a few months or years after the project has finished in order to assess its long-term
impact and sustainability.

Lesson Learning: While the project cycle is a useful way of outlining the stages of a project, it
has one drawback: it makes it look as though one tool follows another. In fact, many of the planning
tools can be used at any stage of the project. They should be repeated throughout the project‘s life
to ensure that any changes that might affect project

Purpose of Project Management is to integrate or connect project:

❖ Purposes – why we do the project

❖ People – who does the project
❖ Processes – how we do the project

A Project manager‘s job is to see that the project team (People) is clear about the purpose of the
project and the 4 levels of results the team expects to achieve.
Impact
1. Impact

2. Outcome
Outcome
3. Output

4. Activities Output

Activities
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If everyone is clear on the results and vision of the project then the next important task of a project
manager is to make sure that everyone on the project team is working toward these goals. The
project manager does this through identifying processes that combine and coordinate the skills,
resources and qualities of the project team.

Processes often found within a project are:

• Assessment
• Purchasing
• Planning
• Budgeting
• Monitoring
• Reporting
• Evaluating outputs, outcomes, or impact
• Communicating within the project team
• Communicating with stakeholders
• Capacity development

A process can be defined as any repeatable set of actions a team decides to perform on a regular
basis to make sure something is done in a certain way. A good process improves the odds of the
project being completed.

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 Chapter Two

Need Assessment
A need - is a discrepancy or a difference (gap) between what there is, or the current state regarding
the group or situation in question and what there should be, or the desired state. A needreflects the
existence of a certain issue that requires an intervention, an issue that must be dealt with.

The need is not, therefore, the current state of affairs, nor the desired, future one. It consists exactly
in the difference or discrepancy between ―what we have‖ and ―what we wish to have‖.

A needs assessment attempts to identify such gaps, to analyze their nature and causes and to
establish priorities for future actions.

Needs assessment consists in a set of systematic procedures applied with the aim of setting up
priorities and making decisions concerning improvement of a program or organization and
allocation of resources. Priorities are based on the identified needs.

A needs assessment is a method of finding out the nature and extent of performance problems and
how they can be solved (Molenda, Pershing, &Reigeluth, 1996).

A needs assessment is a process for pinpointing reasons for gaps in performance or a method for
identifying new and future performance needs (Gupta, 1999).

In general, a needs assessment is a systematic approach to identifying social problems, determining

their extent, and accurately defining the target population to be served and the nature of their
service needs (Rossi, P. H., Freeman, H. E., & Lipsey, Mark, W. L., 1998).

A needs assessment is the process of collecting information about an expressed or implied

organizational need that could be met by conducting training. The need can be a desire to improve
current performance or to correct a deficiency.

A deficiency is a performance that does not meet the current standard. It means that there is a
prescribed or best way of doing a task and that variance from it is creating a problem. The needs
assessment process helps the trainer and the person requesting training to specify the training need
or performance deficiency.

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Assessments can be formal (using survey and interview techniques) or informal (asking some
questions of those involved).In this book, the term needs assessment is a general term for a three-
phase process to collect information, analyze it, and create a training plan. Different types of
assessments are called needs analysis, such as performance analysis, job/task analysis, target
population analysis, and so forth. Needs assessment often involves the use of more than one type
of analysis.

Why Conduct a Needs Assessment?

The main aims of a needs assessment could be:

➢ To assess the extent and causes of community social problems

➢ To identify the major beneficiaries and target populations of a project
➢ To prioritize problems based on their significance in the community
➢ To assess the capacities of the community in the project
➢ Offering the needed foundation (information basis) for development or improvement of
an educational or social program.
➢ Restructuring of an organization for improving the performances in relation with the
established goals.
➢ Setting up criteria for contractic services of human resources training and development
➢ Identification of a solution for a complex problem or issue.

The characteristics of a good needs analysis (assessment) are the following: It:

➢ focuses on the results that should be obtained and not on the means for obtaining
them;
➢ provides an objective basis for decision-making;
➢ contributes to the establishment of common goals and action areas at organization/
project level;
➢ involves all stakeholders in establishing priorities;
➢ is a cyclic process that integrates within the larger scope of strategic planning
activities of an organization or of a community.

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The needs analysis is a systematic process including several subsequent processes:

a. Collecting data by means of clearly defined methods and instruments (questionnaires,

interviews, focus-groups, document research etc.)

b. Identifying priorities and establishing criteria for finding a solution to a problem;

c. Preparing a project plan based on their priorities

Types of Information Collected in Needs Assessment

When conducting needs assessment, we need to collect information on:

➢ Population- demography (population size by age, sex), migration

➢ Infrastructure- hospitals, schools, clinics, water and sanitation systems, roads
➢ Health- infant mortality rate, common illnesses, HIV/AIDS/STI situation
➢ Education, number of children enrolled at primary/secondary schools, number of teachers
in the community
➢ Social- beliefs, customs, religion, ethnicity, gender issue, marriage and family structure
➢ Economics- household income, livelihood, living standard
➢ Resources- material and human, whether they exist or are lacking
➢ Opinions- people‘s opinions about their needs and problems
➢ Knowledge- people‘s level of knowledge about selected problems

Sources of Information in Needs Assessment

There are various sources of information and below is the list of some valuable sources:

❖ Community leaders, religious leaders, specific segments of a population (for example,

women, youths)
❖ Local experts who have wide knowledge about the community
❖ NGOs working in the community, Community-based organizations, volunteer groups
❖ Records at clinics, hospitals and schools
❖ Reports on projects in the area by government agencies, NGOs and international
organizations

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Methodologies for Needs Assessment

―SWOT‖ and ―PESTE‖ analyses are the most common methodologies used within institutional
and community development projects for needs analysis and assessment.

A. SWOT Analysis

The name of this analysis model is actually an English abbreviation: S = strengths; W =

weaknesses; O = opportunities; T = threats.

SWOT analyses have been successfully implemented as methods for organizational analysis, but
they can be used at community level as well. Strengths and weaknesses relate to the internal
environment of the analyzed community or organization. They represent inherent characteristics
concerning the internal state of affairs.

Opportunities and threats relate to the external environment, that is, to what happens outside the
organization or community, but which has an impact on the good running of activities. The context
can either favor or hinder the implementation of activities within an organization or community.

Project teams should focus on maximizing opportunities and limiting the impact of threats, as well
as on enhancing strengths and improving the weaknesses.

EXAMPLE:

In our example one technological high-school from the center of the commune has generous
spaces, but in two separate buildings: one is very old and includes the workshops and the other is
more recent, but has roof problems. The school has 420 pupils enrolled, and the birth rate in the
commune and in the area where pupils are recruited from is constant, even slightly increasing.
Most teachers come from the locality. They are qualified, but more than half have less than 4 years
until retirement. There are very few commuters and actually they are not integrated: they change
very often and they are seen as intruders. School endowments are outdated and scarce, and the
Parents Committee has volunteered to get involved in finding funds for improving the material
base and even in collecting a sum of money (most parents have incomes that exceed the average
rate). The regional labor market school pupils have access to is not very promising for now, but,
for the following 5 years, it is a known fact that two big investment projects are approved and they
will create over 2300 work places in areas that are related to the

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specializations covered by the high-school curriculum. The school manager and the deputy school
manager have worked together for a long time and make a good team, but their relationship with
the Municipality is rather cold. More than 70% of the teachers have notparticipated at a training
course for more than 3 years, due to the poor offer and to the long distance from the city where the
training providers organize this sort of activities.

We can identify then strengths and weaknesses, opportunities and threats of the school in
this specific case.

Strengths:

➢ good collaboration at the managerial team level;

➢ high percentage of qualified and non-commuter teaching staff;
➢ generous spaces.

Weaknesses:

➢ poor material base; and aged teachers;

➢ problems with the quality of the buildings;
➢ reluctant attitude towards commuters.

Opportunities:

➢ slightly increasing birth rate;

➢ parents‘ availability to get involved and their good economical status;
➢ the two investment projects.

Threats:

➢ distant relationship with the local public authority;

➢ poor training courses offer for the teachers in the school;
➢ great distance from the county to municipal city (Teacher Training House).

Keep in Mind:

Strengths and weaknesses refer to school and to what happens with it.

Opportunities and risks refer to the external environment, to what happens outside the school and
the community, but affects a good performance. Context can favor or block the progress of an
organization or of a community.

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B. PESTE Analysis

The way to conduct and use this needs analysis and assessment is similar to the above mentioned
model. PESTE is also an abbreviation which refers to the analysis of the Political, Economic,
Social, Technological and, Environmental context.

a. The Political Aspect concerns mainly the existent government policies at national, regional and
local level – especially the reform policies and programs and the way these can influence theproject
activity and development program. The regional and local development policies can also be added
here, given the current decentralisation of public administration.

b. The Economic Aspect concerns the resources available at the analysed level (national, regional
or local): if there is economic recession or recovery, what economic activities representa priority
and the resources they can provide to the project, the average level of income etc.

c. The Social Aspect concerns the existence of social issues (such as unemployment, poverty,
crime etc.) and the way they are dealt with at national, regional and local level, as well as the
position of different stakeholders towards the development project.

d. The Technological Aspect concerns the technological level of the social project. For instance:
when we analyze an educational project; whether there is educational television in the area;
whether there are resources for distance education and training; whether there are enough properly
equipped training facilities, the number of families in the area having television, the number of TV
channels broadcast, the number of families having a PC and how many of these have Internet
connection etc.

e. The Environmental Aspect concerns the analysis of environmental issues in which the
organization or the community operates.

Capacity Assessment

Communities should be encouraged to use their own capacities and resources to address the
problems they face. It is therefore important to carry out a capacity assessment after needs
assessment to identify strengths that the community could use to address the problems they
identified earlier. The project, if needed, should focus on strengthening the community‘s capacities
to address their problems. By doing this, we are facilitating the community to address their
problems rather than addressing their problems for them.

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Capacity assessment involves six types of assets:

Human: These enable people to make use of their own resources. They include skills,
knowledge, ability to work and good health.
Social: These are based on relationships and include organizations and groups within the
community, political structures and informal networks.
Natural: These form the local environment and include land, trees, water, air, climate and
minerals.
Physical: These are man-made, such as building, transport, water supply and sanitation services,
energy sources and telecommunications.
Economic: These are things that people can use to sustain their livelihoods, such as money and
savings, grain stores, livestock, tools and equipment.
Spiritual: These include faith, scripture, guidance and prayer.
Using participatory techniques, such as those used for the needs assessment, ask community
members to identify their capacities. Remember to ask a range of community members, as different
people have different perspectives.

Write the capacities onto a large piece of paper and ask community members to identify how they
could be used to address the problems identified during the needs assessment. Then ask community
members to think about which capacities should be strengthened so that they can start to address
their priority problems themselves. This is what the project should focus on.

Decide whether it is realistic for our organization to strengthen the community‘s capacity to meet
the priority need:

■ Does meeting the need fit in with our mission?

■ Does meeting the need agree with our values?
■ Does meeting the need fit into our strategy?
■ Will meeting the need be too risky?
■ Do we have enough experience?
■ Do we have enough resources?

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 Chapter Three
3. Project Design
3.1. Stakeholder Analysis
‗Stakeholders‘ are:

✓ people affected by the impact of an activity

✓ people who can influence the impact of an activity.
✓ Stakeholders can be individuals, groups, a community or an institution.
✓ Stakeholder groups are made up of people who share a common interest, such as an NGO,
church leaders and the community.

Any person, group, or organization that is interested and/or involved in the issues that the project
design team intends to address is considered to be a stakeholder. The entire range of stakeholders
for any given project can be fairly broad and often it is difficult to completely identify the group.
Nevertheless, the main stakeholders should be identified at the beginning of the project design.
They may include existing stakeholders of the ongoing youth development program, young people,
community and religious leaders, politicians, teachers, service providers, employers, small
businesses, NGOs, government organizations and institutions. However, such groups oftencontain
many sub-groups. Seeing the community as one stakeholder group can be meaningless because
some people may have very different interests from others in the same community. It may be
necessary to divide the community into a number of sub-groups according to aspects such as
status, age, gender, wealth and ethnicity. These sub-groups may be affected by theproject in
different ways, and some sub-groups may have a lot more influence on the impact of the project
than others.

It might also be unwise to view the government as one stakeholder group. It may be necessary to
list government ministries as different stakeholder groups if they have different, and even
conflicting, opinions about a development proposal. Government at national, state and local levels
may also have very different interests.

Conducting a thorough stakeholders‘ analysis at the beginning of the project design is important
to gain an understanding of which organizations or groups of people have an interest in the

17
issues, what that interest is, who shares the same goals you have, who can help the project and
how, who can have a negative influence and be a barrier for the project, and where within the
planning process this information can be leveraged. Stakeholders may change over the course of
the project and an updated stakeholders‘ analysis can be required at a later stage of the project
implementation.

The main areas that should be covered while conducting the stakeholders‘ analysis include:

• Interest: Refers to the stakeholder‘s interest in the project. If the stakeholder is directly involved
in activities related to program or project activities, then its interest is primary, if not then its
interest is secondary.

• Level of knowledge: Indicates the stakeholders‘ knowledge about the field and issues.
Stakeholders who are internal to the system will be more knowledgeable about the field.

• Resources available: Identifies specific resources held by or accessible to the stakeholder, such
as human capital, time, financial and legal resources, technology and general information.

• Resource mobilization capacity: Estimates how easily groups can mobilize resources in pursuit
of the project‘s objectives.

• Proponent/opponent: Refers to a stakeholder that supports the project‘s mission and can help
to fulfill its objectives. An opponent is a stakeholder that does not support the project‘s goal and
may hinder its success. A project team should define stakeholders as opponents or proponents
based on their best knowledge and research of the stakeholders.

• Influence/Authority: Defines the level of authority that the given stakeholder has to implement
change and make final decisions in the RH sector or for the project.

• Priority: Indicates the level of concern that the given stakeholder holds for the project.

Stakeholders can be defined as ―individuals or institutions that may – directly or indirectly,

positively or negatively – affect or be affected by the outcomes of projects or programmes‖.

Stakeholders should be identified early in the project cycle, mainly in the identification and
appraisal phases, ―in order to maximize the social and institutional benefits of the project and
minimise its negative impacts‖.

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Those who are identified as positively-affected stakeholders include beneficiaries (target groups
and final beneficiaries) and partners.

Key Stakeholders
➢ Beneficiaries are ―those who benefit in whatever way from the implementation of the
project. Here an important distinction may be made between: (a) Target group(s) are the
group or entity who will be directly positively affected by the project at the Project purpose
level and (b) Final beneficiaries who are those who benefit from the project inthe long
term at the level of the society or sector, e.g. ―children‖ due to increased spending
on health and education, ―consumers‖ due to improved agricultural production and
marketing‖.
➢ Project partners are ―those agencies who implement the projects with the support of the
donor directly‖ (ibid).

Stakeholders include:

■ User Groups – people who use the resources or services in an area

■ Interest Groups – people who have an interest in, an opinion about, or who can affect theuse
of, a resource or service
■ Beneficiaries of the project
■ Decision-Makers
■ Those Often Excluded from the decision-making process.

Stakeholders could belong to one or more of these groups. For example, someone might be auser
of a handpump (user group), and also involved in the water user association that managesit (interest
group, decision-maker).

Stakeholders are not only those who shout the loudest. Those who are often excluded from
thedecision-making process due to age, gender or ethnicity are those who are most likely to loseout
if they are not included in the project planning. What methods could be used to ensurethese
stakeholders are involved?Stakeholders include the winners and the losers as a resultof the project.
While moststakeholders will benefit from the project, there may be others whowill be negatively
affectedby the action taken.

Stakeholders can be divided into two main types:

19
■ Primary Stakeholders who benefit from, or are adversely affected by, an activity. This term
describes people whose well-being may be dependent on a resource or service or area (e.g. a forest)
that the project addresses. Usually they live in the area or very near there sources in question. They
often have few options when faced with change, so they have difficulty adapting. Primary
stakeholders are usually vulnerable. They are the reason why a project is carried out – the end
users.

■ Secondary Stakeholders include all other people and institutions with an interest in there
sources or area being considered. They are the means by which project objectives can be met,
rather than an end in themselves.

If stakeholders are not identified at the project planning stage, the project is at risk of failure.
This is because the project cannot take into account the needs and aims of those who will come
into contact with it. Stakeholder analysis is a useful tool for identifying stakeholders and describing
the nature of their stake, roles and interests. Stakeholder analysis helps to:

■ improve the project‘s understanding of the needs of those affected by a problem

■ reveal how little we know as outsiders, which encourages those who do know to participate
■ identify potential winners and losers as a result of the project
■ reduce, or hopefully remove, potential negative project impacts identify those who have the
rights, interests, resources, skills and abilities to take part in, or influence the course of, the project.
■ identify who should be encouraged to take part in the project planning and implementation
■ identify useful alliances which can be built upon
■ identify and reduce risks which might involve identifying possible conflicts of interest and
expectation among stakeholders so that conflict is avoided.

Stakeholder analysis should be done when possible projects are identified. It should be reviewed
at later stages of the project cycle to check that the needs of the stakeholders are being adequately
addressed.

There are a number of ways of doing stakeholder analysis. The method provided below is just
one approach. The approach taken will vary depending on the type of project that is being
proposed. For example, for an advocacy project we would need to consider different aspects of

20
stakeholders than we would for a development project. The method given below is quite general
and can be adapted to whatever type of project is being proposed.

Ideally, stakeholder analysis should be carried out with representatives of as many stakeholder
groups as possible. It might not always be practical to do so if the stakeholders are widely spread.
However, if there is a danger that important stakeholders might be excluded, more time and
resources should be invested in doing the stakeholder analysis to make sure they areincluded.

3.2. Problem Analysis

Before we can start to design the project, we need to analyse the problem identified during project
identification. Problem analysis helps primary stakeholders to identify the causes and effects of
the problems they face. It involves drawing a problem tree, from which project objectives can be
identified. Use the stakeholder analysis to identify those who should help to construct the problem
tree, making sure there is a mix of people from the community with local knowledge, technical
knowledge and so on. Problem analysis can be carried out with different stakeholder groups in
order to see how their perspectives vary.
To help stakeholders think through all the causes and effects, check that they have considered
social, environmental, political, economic and technical factors. The problem tree should help to
reinforce our findings during the research phase of the planning. It might also raise new issues that
we had not previously considered.

After the needs assessment is completed, the collected information is analyzed and interpreted to
determine causes and consequences of identified problems and link them in a cause-effect
relationship. The better the problem is understood, the better a project can be designed to address
it. A problem analysis technique is used to interpret the data and identify causes and effects.

What are problems, causes and consequences?

A problem is a specific negative situation related to a person or group‘s well-being. For example,
a high pregnancy rate among teenage girls and an increased rate of HIV/AIDS among young people
are problems.

21
Causes are factors that exist in the households, community, organizations, and countries that have
initiated or perpetuated the problem. Causes can be analyzed in the context of behavior, conditions,
knowledge, attitude and practices.

There are two levels of causes: underlying causes and root-causes.

• Underlying causes are those that are most visible and recalled first in the process of problem
analysis. Underlying causes can be considered in multiple dimensions of cause and effect. For
example, when inspecting the underlying causes for increased pregnancy rate among teenage girls,
a conclusion could be drawn that girls do not use contraceptives. The underlying cause for this fact
could be that they do not have access to contraceptives, or that they have never been educated on
how to use contraceptives. Underlying causes can be explored by continuing to ask
―why‖ until the root-cause is identified.

• Root-causes are identified by analyzing the problem to its core. Root-causes are those that give
the last possible explanation of the existing problem. For example, the root-cause for high
pregnancy rates among teenage girls in a certain country could be strong cultural norms viewing
sexuality as a taboo. The root cause is often entrenched in cultural norms, and can be difficult to
address. In this case, the focus of problem-solving should concentrate on underlying causes.

Consequences are social, environmental, political or economic conditions that result from the
problem. For example, some consequences of a high pregnancy rate among teenage girls are
increased maternal morbidity and mortality rates, an increased rate of school drop outs, or
increased unemployment among young people.

How do you conduct a problem analysis?

One way to think about logical steps in identifying causes of a problem is to ask the question
―why?‖ In answering this question, a project design team will be moving down the logical
structure towards the underlying cause. Most likely there will be more than one underlying cause.
When there is point at which it is difficult to find new answers, it means that most of the underlying
and root causes have been identified and it is time to begin designing the project. The
―why‖ method is easy to use and can be understood by any community group.

PROBLEM TREES Problem Trees are used to help analyze a situation and identify a core
problem that you want to focus on. The tree has a trunk that represents the core problem, roots

22
that represent the causes of the problem, and branches that represent the effects. As a visual
mapping tool, this is ideal for gathering information in a participatory way.

Method of Constructing a Problem Tree

STEP 1: Agree on the main problem, usually the one identified during project identification. Write
it on a post-it note or piece of card and place it in the middle of the wall or floor. There might be other
problems identified by the community that could be explored. Draw separate problem trees for these
and compare them later when starting to think about exactly what the project will address

STEP 2: Identify the causes of the main problem by asking ‗But why?‘ until we can go no further.
Write each cause on a separate post-it note or piece of card. Some problems might have more than
one cause. For example:

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Developing a problem tree (CAUSES)

Main Problem Lack of Income

But why? But why?

Nothing to sell Few jobs

But why? But why? But why?

Poor yields Local factory closed Immigration

STEP 3: Identify the effects of the main problem by asking ‗So what?‘ until we can go no further.
Write each effect on a separate post-it note or piece of card. Some problems might have more than
one effect. For example:
Developing a problem tree (EFFECTS)

Children miss Crop yields

school decrease

So what? So what?

No money to pay No money to buy

school fees new seeds

So what? So what?

Lack of
Main problem income

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STEP 4: Copy the problem tree onto a sheet of paper. Draw in vertical links to show the relationship
between the causes or effects. Draw horizontal lines to show where there are joint causes and
combined effects.
EXAMPLE of a simple problem tree

Children stop
Reduced Poorer going to school
incomes nutrition Increased mortality
Less money
for school fees
Increased disease
Less time for
farm work Buy water

Use ‗dirty‘ sources

Increased cost of
water collection

Effects
SHORTAGE
OF SAFE
WATER

Causes

Increased Increased Not enough Open wells Borehole hand-

demand demand wells dried up pumps
for farm use for household use broken

Water-intensive Population Water table

farming methods pressure lowered

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 Living conditions of local
people are worsened

Frequent diseases Income of population

among fish consumers reduced Effects

Bad quality of Smaller catch for fisher Attractiveness for tourism

river fish folk reduced

River water quality

deteriorated

Uncontrolled dumping Most households and factories Wastewater treated

discharge wastewater directly in plants does not
of waste into river
into river meet standards

Incentives for avoiding Legal regulations are not

Population is not
Polluters are not high pollution of waste adequate to prevent Causes
aware of the danger of
controlled waste dumping water not operational discharge of wastewater

Objective Analysis

To formulate an effective project strategic objective/long-term outcome, as well as intermediate

results and outcomes, a project design team should use the SMART approach. The most common
explanation of SMART is specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time-bound. To formulate
a SMART objective or outcome, consider the questions listed below.

Specific: What exactly is the project going to do, where, with or for whom?

Measurable: Are the stated results measurable? Does the organization have the capacity to measure
them?

Achievable: Can we get it done in the timeframe? In this political climate? With this amount of
money and resources?

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Relevant: Is the objective/outcome important to achieving the desired result? Is it in line with the
organizational strategy?

Time-bound: When will this objective/outcome be accomplished?

SMART Means:

Specific — to avoid differing interpretations

Measurable — to monitor and evaluate progress

Achievable — to have realistic targets

Relevant — to lead to desired results

Time-bound — to have a specific time period to achieve the results

Objectives tree: An objectives tree is similar to a problem tree, except that it looks at objectives
rather than problems. An objectives tree can be developed without first identifying problems, but
the easiest way to develop an objectives tree is to convert a problem tree.
To do this, turn each of the causes in the problem tree into positive statements. For example,
‗poor yields‘ would become ‗yields increased‘. This will result in an objectives tree. Check the
logic. Will one layer of objectives achieve the next? Add, delete or change objectives if necessary.
There might be some causes near the bottom of the tree that are very general. They cannot be
turned into objectives that could easily be addressed in a project. Instead they act as constraints on
the project that need to be considered during risk assessment. We might later decide to focus a
project or program on that issue by developing a problem tree with the issue as the main problem.

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EXAMPLE of an objectives tree with focus on one area

ACCESS TO
SAFE
WATER
IMPROVED

Demand for Wastage at More wells Wells Hand-pumps

farm household dug protected repaired
use reduced level reduced and yielding

Farming made Population Water table

more pressure reached
waterefficient CONSTRAINT

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 Chapter Four

Logical Framework
Now that the project has been identified and detailed information has been collected, we can start
to plan exactly how the project will function. A useful way of doing this may be to use a logical
framework (log frame). The process of completing the log frame helps to think through all the
factors that should be considered for planning a successful project. Even if people are not planning
to develop a log frame, it may help to use the tools included in the log frame approach when
planning projects.

What is a log frame?

The log frame is a tool used to help strengthen project design, implementation and evaluation.
Although it is constructed during the planning stage of a project, the log frame is a living document,
which should be consulted and altered throughout the project‘s life cycle. The log frame is a table
of four rows and four columns, where all the key parts of a project can be inserted as a clear set
of statements: the project goal, purpose, outputs and activities, with their indicators, evidence and
assumptions. It shows the project‘s structure and describes the project logically. The log frame
does not show every detail of the project. It is an overview of the key factors.

The Log Frame breaks a project down into four separate and distinct levels of objectives. At the
lowest level are the Project Inputs. These are the activities to be undertaken that will in turn result
in the second level of objectives that we call the Outputs. Outputs are the results that are directly
accomplished by management of the inputs. For example, in an education project, wecan
produce trained teachers, a constructed and equipped school building and trained administrators.
We do this by managing a specific set of inputs (e.g., training of teachers, construction of school
building, etc.). Yet the outputs themselves are not valuable for their own sake and are not the
justification for the project. What we are really interested in is an improvement in education. This
then, represents a higher level objective that we call the Purpose. The purpose is what we expect
to result from having achieved the outputs. The outputs

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are a set of interrelated objectives that, combined, are aimed at achieving the project purpose.
Within the project itself we have, therefore, three levels: Inputs, Outputs and Purpose.

The fourth level in the Logical Framework is a higher order objective called the Goal. The project
is one of the necessary conditions for achieving this goal, but will not be sufficient by itself to
achieve the goal. Using the same example of an education project, the specific project purpose is
improved education and the goal is manpower needs for local industry met. In order toachieve this
goal, other projects also may have to be undertaken, such as one to motivate those with the required
skills to work in the region in which their skills are needed. Just as we must identify all the outputs
necessary to achieve the purpose, so we must identify all the purposes (projects) necessary to
achieve the goal. The goal is usually associated with specific program or sector objectives.

Details can be given in other documents, such as the proposal, budget and activity schedule, which
accompany the log frame.

Log frame
Summary Indicators Evidence Assumptions
Goal

Purpose

Outputs

Activities

Most donors use the log frame format above. However, some turn log frames on their side so that
the objectives run across the top of the table with the summary, indicators, evidence and
assumptions down the side. Having carried out a stakeholder analysis and done research, we can
answer the question, ‗Where are we now?‘
The log frame asks a series of further questions:
➢ Where do we want to be? (GOAL, PURPOSE)
➢ How will we get there? (OUTPUTS, ACTIVITIES)
➢ How will we know when we have got there? (INDICATORS)

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 ➢ What will show us we have got there? (EVIDENCE)
➢ What are the potential problems along the way? (ASSUMPTIONS)
Why use a log frame?
Log frames are useful because they:
➢ help people to organise their thinking
➢ help people to think logically
➢ help identify weaknesses in project design
➢ ensure key indicators are identified from the start of the project so that monitoring and
evaluation are easier
➢ ensure that people involved in the project use the same terminology
➢ help people to summarise a project plan on a few sides of paper. This helps them to
communicate their plan simply with others, although a log frame is no substitute for
writing a full plan.
However, the log frame approach does have limitations:
❖ Project management can become rigid unless the log frame is continually checked and
adjusted.
❖ As the approach involves participation by a number of different stakeholders, good
leadership and facilitation skills are needed to ensure stakeholders understand the approach
and actively participate in it.
❖ Since the approach builds on analysis of a problem, it might not be viewed as appropriate
in cultures where people do not openly discuss problems.
❖ The terminology used can be threatening to some stakeholders. The approach itself can be
very difficult to understand in some cultures.
Who should complete the log frame?
Where possible, the primary stakeholders should be involved in developing the log frame. It
should be developed by the people most closely involved in project implementation. It is
possible that the concept of the log frame will not be easily understood by primary stakeholders.
However, as the process is as important as the end product, participatory processes could be used
to guide stakeholders through the questions and help them to identify some of the project
components. Then the log frame table could later be completed by project staff.

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Terminology
Different organizations use different terms for the components of the log frame. We explain the
terms simply below. Wherever we are aware of alternative names used by other organizations,
we provide that name in brackets. The terms will be explained further in the section about
completing a log frame.
Summary (Intervention logic)
The Summary outlines the project‘s objectives: what it hopes to achieve and how. There are many
different words that describe different types of objectives. We use the term ‗objective‘ as a general
term for a desired change. In the log frame, the summary separates out the different levels of
objectives to form a ‗hierarchy of objectives‘ and uses special terms to refer to each level.
Goal; the Goal refers to the overall problem we are trying to address. It is sometimes referred to
as the wider development objective. This might be improved incomes, improved access to water
or reduced crime. Example: Improved farm productivity by small farmers.
Purpose The Purpose is the specific change that we want the project to make to contribute to the
achievement of the goal. It is sometimes called the Immediate Project Objective. Example:
Improved farming methods and varieties of rice adopted by small farmers.
Outputs; the Outputs are what we want to see as a result of our activities, in order to fulfill the
purpose. Example: Improved crop varieties acceptable to users made available and distributed.
Activities; the Activities describe the tasks we will carry out. Example: Farmer participatory
research into crop varieties.
Indicators (Measurable/ Objectively Verifiable Indicators– OVIs)
Indicators answer the question ‗How do we know when we have got there?‘ They are signs which
measure project performance against objectives and play an important part in monitoring and
evaluation. Example: 75% of small farmers in the diocese have adopted new rice varieties bythe
end of year 3
Evidence (Means of Verification – MoVs)
Evidence refers to the source of the information needed to measure performance, who will be
responsible for collecting it, and how often. Example: Sample survey carried out by project staff
at the end of year 3.

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Assumptions; refer to the conditions that could affect progress, success or long-term sustainability
of the project. There may be external factors which cannot be controlled or which we choose not
to control. It may be possible to reduce the project‘s vulnerability to factors which cannot be
controlled. These could include climatic change, price changes and government policies.

Completing a log frame

➢ The key to completing a log frame is to fill in the hierarchy of objectives by working
down the Summary column
➢ then work upwards through the Assumptions column
➢ then work across each row to identify the Indicators and Evidence for each objective.
By completing the log frame this way, we avoid getting too involved in the detail before the
project structure has been developed.

Stage 1; Summary of Objectives

Work down the summary column of the log frame, giving a brief statement of the objectives at
each level.
Goal; this is the wider, long-term development goal. It is a desired state where a need or problem
no longer exists or is significantly improved. The project will contribute towards this long-term
impact, but will not achieve it itself. The goal could be the same for a number of projects and for
a number of organisations. The goal might be a government objective or United Nations
Millennium Development Goal.
Examples: Improved health in children.
Decreased incidence and impact of diarrhoeal disease.
Purpose; what change or benefit do we want the project to achieve? Try to include both material
benefits and positive social change in the purpose statement. There should be only one purpose.
If we have more than one purpose, the project will be difficult to manage, so we should consider
having separate projects. Each should have a separate log frame but will share the same goal.
Examples: Increased immunisation in the project area.
Increased access to, and use of, safe water in the diocese.

33
Outputs; what outputs are needed to achieve the purpose? In other words, what will the project
deliver? Outputs are what the project team has control over. Typically there may be three to six
outputs.
Examples: Team of healthcare workers strengthened and functioning.
Improved sources of safe water.
Activities; how will we deliver the outputs? It is likely that there will be a long list of activities
to carry out. However, the log frame should not include too much detail. A detailed outline of the
activities should be given in a separate activity schedule. The activity statements should start with
an active verb.
Examples: Recruit healthcare workers.
Upgrade current wells and establish new wells.
It is not necessary to set targets (quantity or quality) at this stage. This can be done when column
2 (indicators) is filled in. Use numbering to ensure that the activities are linked to their output

The ‘If-Then’ test

When we have filled in the objectives for each level, we must make sure the statements are
logically linked to each other. To do this, use the ‗If-Then‘ test:
✓ Look at the activities. If we carry out all of the activities, then will they result in the
outputs?
✓ Look at the outputs. If the outputs are produced, then will they achieve the purpose?
✓ If the purpose is achieved, then will it contribute towards the goal?
For example:
✓ If we train members of the community to maintain and repair handpumps (activities),
then sources of safe water will be improved (output).
✓ If sources of safe water are improved (output), then access to safe water will be
improved (purpose).
✓ If access to safe water is improved (purpose), then the incidence and impact of diarrhoeal
disease will decrease (goal).

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Stage 2; Assumptions

We have checked that each objective should lead to the one above using the ‗If-Then‘ test.
However, we can never be 100% sure that each objective will lead to the next because there will
always be a risk that external factors will affect the link.

Assumptions reflect our recognition that there are factors beyond our control that are necessary for
successful achievement of objectives at all levels of the project. For example, we can control
getting up on time, having breakfast and getting to the bus-stop for ourselves. We cannot control
the traffic or ensure that the bus company keeps its buses in good running order. So by identifying
our assumptions, we have expanded our original hypothesis statement to include the specific nature
of the more important uncertainties that could affect that hypothesis.

Having once identified the assumptions, we can then try to deal with them in such a way as to
increase our probability of success and consequently our confidence in our project design. In the
case of the bus example, we can get up earlier to avoid traffic delays or we could call the bus
company and find out how often their buses break down. If the answer is 80% of the time, we
might decide to rent a car!

Assumptions are useful not only during the design stage of the project but also during the course
of the project and its evaluation. Once the project begins, the project manager should monitor the
assumptions regularly to assess their continuing validity. If he finds that an assumption proves to
be invalid, he must take action to rectify the situation. A good project manager monitors
assumptions regularly so that corrective action can be taken in a timely manner. Assumptions are
also important during an evaluation because their examination can provide insight as to why the
project has or has not succeeded in achieving its objectives.

To develop useful assumption statements, we ask the question: ―What could happen to make this
assumption invalid?‖ For example, if we have a very general assumption such as ―equipment
available on time‖, we would ask: ―What could happen to delay the availability of equipment?‖
The response might be that there is a likelihood that a dock strike will occur and thus we realize
we are really making the underlying assumption that the dock strike would not occur. We can then
follow this with a further question: ―What could happen to make the dock strike occur?‖
Suppose we find that the government is scheduled to sign a contract with the dock workers‘
union two weeks before the project equipment is due to arrive at the port, and there is a
35
possibility that the government will not accept the union‘s demands. Project staff could check with
the union and with the appropriate government officials to determine the probability that the
contract will be signed on time. If the probability appears high, instead of the original assumption
(―equipment available on time‖), the following assumption would be made:
―Government and dock workers‘ union sign labor contract by June 28, 1982 in time for delivery
of equipment‖. The project manager will know then to keep an eye on negotiations between the
government and the dock workers and, if it looks like the contract may not be signed, he can replan
the project accordingly.

Most projects fail, not because of bad project design, but because of lack of attention to these
factors that are either outside the control of the project or which are too difficult or costly to control.
In the log frame we need to show that we have thought about what these factors might be. To
complete the assumptions column of the log frame, first consider the risks linked to the project

Risk assessment

Risk is the potential for unwanted happenings. Every activity involves risks. If they happen, some
risks will affect the activity more than others. Risk assessment helps to identify them and consider
the likelihood of them happening and their likely impact. The risks can then be managed by
changing the project plans to ensure the risks are minimized.
Possible risks include:
➢ climatic – rainfall
➢ human – labor strikes, beneficiaries unwilling to try new techniques, project staff leaving
the organization
➢ economic – crop prices being unstable
➢ political – government policies
➢ projects by other agencies not remaining on schedule.

The ‘If-and-Then’ test

For each objective in the log frame, consider what assumptions need to be made in order for that
objective to lead to the objective at the next level.

36
For example:
❖ If we train members of the community to maintain and repair handpumps (activities), and
an effective supply chain for spare parts exists (assumption), then sources of safe water
will be improved (output).
❖ If sources of safe water are improved (output), and an adequate quantity of water is
available (assumption), then access to safe water will be improved (purpose).
❖ If access to safe water is improved (purpose) and incidence of diarrhoeal disease is due
to unsafe water (assumption), then the incidence and impact of diarrhoeal disease will
decrease (goal).

Stage 3; Indicators and; Evidence

Indicators (column 2 of log frame)

Indicators are targets that show progress towards achieving objectives. They answer the question
‗How do we know whether or not what we planned is happening, or has happened?‘ Indicators
help us to monitor, review and evaluate the project. They enable us to know whether the project
plans need adjusting. They help us to learn lessons from a project in order to avoid making the
same mistakes in other projects.

Log frames sometimes call indicators ‗Objectively Verifiable Indicators‘. The term ‗objectively‘
is used because indicators should not depend on the point of view of the person measuring them.
It should not matter who measures them – the same result should be reached. So it is better to ask
two people to measure attendance at a meeting by counting the number of people there, than to ask
them to grade attendance on a scale of very poor, poor, adequate, good or very good. One person
might think attendance is very good while another might think it is only adequate. This would
depend on their past experience of meetings and their own expectations of how many people might
attend this one.

Types of Indicators

There are many different types of indicators to consider. Try to be creative and use a mixture in
order to ensure that the objectives can be measured effectively and that monitoring and evaluation
needs can be met.

37
Formative indicators (also called Milestones) are used during an activity, phase or project to
show whether progress is on track.

Summative indicators are used at the end of the project for evaluation.

Direct indicators measure the objective directly, such as the number of children attending
school.
Indirect indicators (also called Proxy indicators) are used if direct indicators are not appropriate
or possible if, for example:
✓ results cannot be measured directly, such as quality of life
✓ direct indicators are too expensive to measure
✓ direct indicators can only be measured after the project has ended.
For example, to measure an increase in literacy it might be difficult or costly to interview children,
but the number of books borrowed from the school library might give you an indicationof whether
or not literacy has increased.
It can be very difficult to measure people‘s incomes without offending them. Instead, we could
look at changes in household expenditure. This might involve choosing a list of items that a
household might have, including a few luxury items, and see how expenditure changes over time.
We could also look at sales figures of local shops and services as these are likely to be affected by
changes in the incomes of the local population.
It is easier to measure behavior than feelings because behavior can be observed. So if we want to
measure whether people feel more confident, we could observe how often they speak in
community meetings.
Quantitative indicators can be analyzed in numerical form – who, what, when, where, how much,
how many, how often? This might include:
➢ how often things happen
➢ number of people involved or affected
➢ growth rates
➢ uptake, for example, school enrolment, visits to clinic, adoption of new seed varieties.
Qualitative indicators measure things that cannot be counted, like:
➢ satisfaction, opinions
➢ decision-making ability
➢ changes in attitude.
38
Try to use a mixture of quantitative and qualitative indicators so that we can be sure to capture the
real progress and impact of the project.

Imagination is very important when setting indicators. It can help to ask a group of stakeholders
setting indicators to close their eyes and imagine how the situation will be improved by the end
of the project. What do they hear, see, touch, feel and smell that will be different when the main
problem has been addressed? If we are aiming for holistic development, then our impact on
spiritual well-being should be as great as that on physical well-being. Spiritual indicators are
particularly difficult to set. Indirect indicators might have to be used.

Examples of basic indicators include;

Economic; yield per hectare, production per laborer, eggs per day, production of handicraft items
per month, average income, land area per household, cattle per household, percentage of people
with bank accounts, percentage of people above or below the poverty line, percentage of people
without land, rate of migration.

Social; Infant mortality rate, number of deaths, literacy rate, average years in formal schooling,
number of students entering secondary education, difference between male and female wages,
percentage of women receiving training, percentage of people attending meetings, representation
of disadvantaged groups on committees.

Environmental; Fish harvested per year, length of fallow, forest cleared each year, water
availability in soil, erosion, percentage of households practicing composting, average time to
collect fuel wood each day.

Spiritual; Crime rate, divorce rate, church membership, attendance at church meetings.

Setting good Indicators

Indicators should be:

❖ Relevant; is the indicator relevant to the objective it is measuring? For example, if an
objective is ‗to increase hand pump use‘, measuring the number of hand pumps produced
would not a good indicator because it does not measure how many are actually being used.
❖ Sufficient; is more than one indicator needed?

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 ❖ Specific; quality, quantity, time
❖ Measurable; can the indicator realistically be measured?
❖ Sensitive to the Changes; that will be happening as a result of the project or program –
if the planned changes happen, will the indicator still be appropriate and measurable?
❖ Cost-Effective; Can the indicators be measured with reasonable cost and effort? Is the
cost of measuring the indicators proportionate to the total project cost?
❖ Available; Can the indicator be measured at the planned time? For example, consider
seasonal climatic change.

Method for Setting Indicators

Work horizontally across the log frame, brainstorming indicators that will measure each objective.
This could involve referring back to the problem tree. The effects in the problem tree can be turned
into indicators.
➢ If there is a long list of possible indicators for one particular objective, try to reduce the list
so that only the essential ones are included. We need enough to be able confidently to
measure the achievement of the objective, but not so many that we will waste time and
money.
➢ Make sure the indicators are good and there is a good selection – quantitative and
qualitative, formative and summative.
Remember that the log frame is a living document that needs to be looked at and revised regularly.
Some of the indicators might need to be changed during the project if they are inadequate or too
difficult or expensive to measure.

Goal level Indicators; Since the project contributes towards the goal but cannot be wholly
responsible for achieving the goal, the indicators at goal level may reach beyond the end of the
project. They might not be measured by our organization, but be included in governmentstatistics
some months after the project has ended. Of course, one problem of using such an indicator is that
it will not tell us how much of the progress is due to our project and how muchof it is a result of
projects by other organizations. As much as possible, goal level indicators should measure change
during the lifetime of the project.

40
Purpose level Indicators; indicators can be difficult to identify at purpose level. This is because
the purpose objective often defines a change in behavior, which can be difficult to measure.
Some creative thinking is needed for setting indicators at this level.

Output Indicators; output indicators should be easier to measure than higher level objectives,
because we have more control over these objectives. The output indicators can be transferred to
the terms of reference for the member of staff or consultant that is responsible for delivering the
outputs.

Activity Indicators; the indicators at activity level usually include a summary of the inputs or
budget. The clearest indication of whether activities have happened successfully is if the outputs
have been delivered. However, for complex outputs it can be useful to include activity level
indicators that show progress towards completing the outputs.

Evidence (column 3 of log frame)

Evidence is called ‗Means of Verification‘ in some log frames. It describes the sources of
information we will use to measure the indicator. For example, body temperature is an indicator
of health. A thermometer provides the evidence.
For the log frame, consider:
➢ the type of data needed, such as a survey
➢ the source of the data – whether secondary (collected by someone else) or primary
(collected by our organization)
➢ who will collect and document the data
➢ frequency and dates of data collection. For example; monthly, quarterly, annually.
When appropriate evidence for each indicator has been identified, consider whether it is:
➢ Available; if we want to use secondary data, will we be able to gain permission to access
it? Will it be reliable?
➢ Low-Cost; will the information be too expensive to collect?
➢ Timely; will we be able to collect the information when we need it? Consider seasonal
variations in climate. If we want to use secondary data, will it have been collected at the
right time? Sometimes government statistics are not released until some months after the
data was collected because it takes time for them to be analyzed.

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If the evidence is not available at low cost at the right time, the indicator should be changed to
one which can be measured more effectively.
Examples of evidence include;
✓ Reports - certificate
✓ maintenance log - newspaper articles
✓ user survey - minutes of meetings
✓ participatory evaluation - official statistics
✓ accounts

Final check of log frame

When the log frame has been filled in, recheck it to make sure it is logical. Ensure that:
➢ objectives are stated clearly and logically linked to the higher objective
➢ the project has only one purpose
➢ all key assumptions have been made and the project is likely to be a success
➢ indicators and evidence are reliable and accessible
➢ the indicators can measure the progress and impact of the objectives
➢ the indicators are QQT (quantity, quality and time)
➢ the activities include actions needed for gathering evidence
➢ the indicators and evidence can be used for monitoring and evaluation.

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 Chapter Five

Action Planning
5.1. Action Plan and Schedule
Once the log frame has been developed, think about the details of how the project will take shape
in terms of timing, resources, budgeting and personnel.
Like the log frame, the action plan should be viewed as a flexible document in which changes
can be made later.
Activity planning worksheet
The activity planning worksheet is used to help us consider:
➢ who will do what
➢ when this will happen
➢ what types of inputs, besides people, will be needed.
A separate sheet should be used for each output. The activities related to the output are set out,
together with the resources needed, the total cost of these and the name of the person or people
who will be responsible for that activity.

Example; output: 100 women engaged in a range of income-generating activities by end of year 3

Activity Starting and Personnel needed Materials Person Assumptions

completion (How many people Needed responsible
dates for how long?)
1. Train 20 August 15 for One chef for • 20 pans Mrs Jabra That oranges
women five days seven days • 500 jars are cheap this
in jam (including • sugar year
making preparation time) • fruit
• kerosene
for stove
2. Etc

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5.2. Project Budget
The purpose of a project budget is to prepare a valid estimate of the costs associated with the
performance of project activities using current assumption. The budget should provide a complete
picture of the project cost structure, including cost estimates for all of the inputs and resources
needed to implement the project. The project budget should also identify all sources of revenue
that will be used to fund program activities including both cash and in-kind contributions. To
develop a budget, a project design team should work together with a finance specialist to make
realistic estimates for all project expenses. The project budget should be developed in the early
stages of project design to ensure that the proposed interventions are feasible with the existing and
anticipated funding. If the project includes a cost share or leverage requirement, a plan for meeting
this requirement shall also be developed and outlined in the budget notes.

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 Chapter Six
Project Implementation and Assessment
6.1. Project Monitoring and Reviewing
Remember to include monitoring and reviewing in the activity planning worksheet. Think about
who will collect the evidence for the indicators and who will analyse it. Identify who will be
responsible for making decisions about changing the project design as a result of lessons learnt.
Ensure that stakeholders are involved in this process.
If the information gathered during project identification and research is not enough to give baseline
data for the indicators that have been identified, then a baseline survey should be carriedout before
the project implementation starts. This means that there will be data to compare progress against.
For example, an indicator is ‗attendance by girls at the primary school increased by 50%‘. For
the baseline survey, the number of girls attending the primary school should be counted. When
progress is monitored later on, the number of girls attending school can be counted and then
compared with the figures in the baseline survey.

Monitoring and evaluation (M&E) is a part of a project cycle and should be designed during the
project development stage. While often thought of as one, they are in fact two discreet aspects of
project implementation.

Monitoring is the routine tracking of a project‘s activities by measuring on a regular, ongoing basis
whether planned activities are being carried out. A project can be monitored at any level such as
inputs, outputs, and outcomes. The purpose of monitoring will change from one level to another.
Figure 9 below provides an example of the monitoring focus at each project level.

Purpose Monitor to assess expected change & progress toward results

Output Monitor to ensure expected results of interventions

Activities Monitor to verify progress against work plan and schedule

Inputs Monitor to manage against budget and non-financial resources

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Monitoring contributes to project evaluation, but evaluation goes beyond monitoring and provides
in-depth analysis of the project‘s progress towards achieving outcomes and impact. Evaluation is
a process that attempts to determine as systematically and objectively as possible the outcome and
impact of project interventions relative to specific project objectives. Evaluation occurs less
frequently than monitoring, which allows for more in-depth analysis of a project‘s progress and
impact. The most com;mon timing for evaluation is during the midterm and end of the project.

Monitoring and Evaluation Plan

To facilitate the monitoring and evaluation process, a project monitoring and evaluation (M&E)
plan should be designed during project development. An M&E plan is a systematic plan for
collection, entry, editing, analysis and interpretation of the data needed for project management.
There are various formats for M&E plans, but each usually includes the following information: a
description of the intended results, indicators, targets, data source or means of verification, baseline
values, M&E tools, and responsible persons.

For an integrated project, it is important to incorporate an M&E plan and when developing an
M&E plan for an integrated project, the following issues should be considered:

• Data collection should not be an additional burden for the project staff, and should be
incorporated into the existing data collection system. If an indicator requires complex tools for
data collection, change the indicator. Select only those indicators that provide the minimal amounts
of information that can meaningfully inform management decisions, clarify options, andidentify
implementation improvements.

• Make sure that the interests of the different stakeholders and the donors‘ needs for various
types of information is identified prior to the project implementation and assure that a consensus
is reached regarding the indicators to be used and the types of information to be collected and
analyzed.

Monitoring

What is Monitoring?

Monitoring is the systematic collection of information on all aspects of the project while it is being
implemented.

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It can be divided into internal monitoring (staff performance, planned expenditure for each activity
versus actual expenses, procurement procedures etc) and external monitoring (planned versus
actual activities, timely implementation of activities, targeted beneficiaries versus true
beneficiaries, unintended effects on the community and unexpected problems etc). Both are
important and both need to be monitored.

Why Do We Do Monitoring?

We do monitoring to analyze the current situation, identify problems and find solutions, discover
trends and patterns, keep project activities on schedule, measure progress towards objectives,
formulate/revise future goals and objectives, make decisions about human, financial, and material
resources. Actually, it is a very useful tool for management and provides necessary information
for evaluation.

In other words, monitoring means checking how things are going on and comparing actual
progress to what is planned.

Who Does Monitoring?

Monitoring is concerned both with project staff, implementation organization and donors. As
mentioned above, it is useful for management and project manager or program coordinator
conducts monitoring on all aspects of the project-budget/finance, materials, staff, activities,
outputs/results etc. Respected project staffs are also responsible for monitoring staff and tasks
under them-for example, finance manager has to monitor the accountant and cashier as well as
budget allocations. At the same time, representatives of donors also conduct monitoring to measure
the progress towards objectives and goal/impact.

When Do We Do Monitoring?

According to the desired schedule of implementation of the projects. e.g. monthly, bi-monthly,
quarterly

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Planning for Monitoring

Monitoring plan should be in place before the project starts and its activities must be put in the
detailed implementation plan. Therefore, it should be part of your planning process.

Monitoring and evaluation should be part of your planning process. It is very difficult to set up the
monitoring system when the project is in implementation stage. You must develop indicators.
When you do planning, you will set indicators. These indicators provide the framework for your
monitoring and evaluation system. They tell you what you want to know and the kinds of
information will be useful to collect.

What do we want to know? This includes looking at indicators for both internal issues and
external issues.

There are three basic types of monitoring commonly used in development work:

1. Management/administration

✓ staff/personnel
✓ vehicles
✓ supplies

2. Finance

✓ project budget and expenditure

✓ staff salaries
✓ cash flow analysis

3. Project activities

✓ project inputs – budget, equipment, key staff needed

✓ results of activities – project outputs/outcomes/impact (using indicators)
✓ the way the project is managed
✓ situation or context – policy environment, political situation

What is Evaluation
Evaluation is a systematic and objective assessment of ongoing or completed project. It makes
comparison of the outcomes of the project with planned ones.

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Why Do We Do Evaluation?

The primary objective of evaluation is to ascertain whether the project has achieved its intended
objectives. By drawing conclusions, evaluation intends to provide recommendations for the
improvement on the future course of the project as well as lessons learned for other projects. Some
big organizations use specific criteria when they do evaluation. Mainly they are;

1) Efficiency. Whether the resources used for the activities are appropriate in terms of output or
they are cost-effective. For example, training program that train 50 peer educators costs $10000.
Is it efficient or cost-effective?

2) Effectiveness. It is the measure of the extent of the achievement of the development project
against the target objectives. For example, we plan to improve the qualifications of all high school
teachers in particular area, did we succeed after project completion.

3) Impact. It measures whether or not project implementation has contributed to the change in the
situation of the problem it was trying to address. For example, high HIV transmission rate among
young people in the community was the main problem before and our project really made a
difference to this situation that is reduction in HIV transmission rate among young people in the
community.

When Do We Evaluate?
Periodically, mid-term, at the end of the project (final evaluation) and years after the completion
of the project (ex post evaluation).

Who Does Evaluation?

Project manager or assigned project staff can conduct internal evaluation and donor/s or
consultant/s can conduct external evaluation.

Planning for Evaluation

Similar to monitoring plan, we should start evaluation plan right from the beginning. When we
do needs assessment, we will collect data about economic, health, education and social situation
of the community. They will become baseline data for us and to measure the impact or

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achievement of objectives, we can compare these data with those that we collect after or during
the implementation of the project.

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