Unit-6

I. Introduction
 Digital-to-analog (D/A) and analog-to-digital (A/D) converters constitute an essential link when
digital devices interface with analog devices, and vice versa. They are important building blocks
of any digital system, including both communication and non-communication systems, besides
having other applications.

Fig.: Illustration of ADC and DAC

II. Digital to Analog Converter (D/A Converter)

 For the results of digital computations to be used in the analog world, it becomes necessary to
convert the digital values to proportional analog values.
 Unlike analog signals, digital data can be transmitted, manipulated, and stored without
degradation. But a DAC is needed to convert the digital signal to analog to drive an earphone or
loudspeaker amplifier in order to produce sound (analog air pressure waves).

Working of D/A Converter

Fig.: Block diagram of DAC

 Fig. shows the block diagram of a typical digital-to-analog (D/A) converter, which accepts an n-
bit parallel digital code as an input and provides an analog current or voltage as an output.
 For an ideal D/A converter, the analog output for an n-bit binary code is given by;
Vo = Vref (− Rf/R) (b0 + b1 × 2−1 + b2 × 2−2 +· · ·+bn−1 × 2−n+1)
 Where;
V0 - Analog output voltage
Vref - Reference analog input voltage
b0 - Most significant bit of binary input code
bn−1 - Least significant bit of binary input code

 In order to provide current-to-voltage conversion and/or buffering, an op amp is used at the

output. However, in some high-speed applications where a limited output voltage range is
acceptable, a resistor, instead of an op amp, is used for the current-to-voltage conversion,
thereby eliminating the delay associated with the op amp.

III. D/A Converter Specifications/Performance Parameters

Resolution
 The resolution of a D/A converter is the number of states (2n) into which the full-scale range
is divided or resolved. Here, n is the number of bits in the input digital word. The higher the
number of bits, the better is the resolution.
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑉𝑟𝑒
𝑓2𝑛
−1
 The resolution in millivolts for the two cases for a full-scale output of 5 V is approximately
20 mV (for an eight-bit converter) and 1.2 mV (for a 12-bit converter).

Accuracy
 The accuracy of a D/A converter is the difference between the actual analog output and the
ideal expected output when a given digital input is applied.
 Sources of error include the gain error (or full-scale error), the offset error (or zero-scale
error), nonlinearity errors and a drift of all these factors.
Fig.: Gain Error Fig.: Offset Error
 Settling Time or Conversion Speed
 The conversion speed of a D/A converter is expressed in terms of its settling time.
 The settling time is the time period that has elapsed for the analog output to reach its final
value within a specified error band after a digital input code change has been effected.
 General-purpose D/A converters have a settling time of several microseconds, while some
of the high-speed D/A converters have a settling time of a few nanoseconds.

Dynamic Range
 This is the ratio of the largest output to the smallest output, excluding zero, expressed in dB.

Non Linearity or Differential Non Linearity

 Nonlinearity (NL) is the maximum deviation of analog output voltage from a straight line
drawn between the end points, expressed as a percentage of the full-scale range or in terms
of LSBs.
 Differential non linearity (DNL) is the worst-case deviation of any adjacent analog outputs
from the ideal one-LSB step size.

Monotonocity
 A D/A converter is considered as monotonic if its analog output either increases or remains
the same but does not decrease as the digital input code advances in one-LSB steps.

IV. Types of D/A Converter

Binary Weighted Resistor D/A Converter

Fig.: 4 bit binary weighted resistor DAC

 Fig. shows a 4-bit weighted-resistor D/A converter which includes a reference voltage source, a
set of four electronically controlled switches, a set of four binary-weighted precision resistors,
and an Op-Amp.
 Each binary bit of digital input code controls its own switch. The switch closes with a bit value of
1, and the switch stays open with binary 0. The resistor connected to the most significant bit
(MSB), b0, has a value of R; b1 is connected to 2R, b2 to 4R, and b3 to 8R.
  Thus, each low-order bit is connected to a resistor that is higher by a factor of 2. For a 4-bit D/A
converter, the binary input range is from 0000 to 1111.
 The analog output voltage can be shown to be;
 Vref Rf
Vout  (2 n1
b 2 b ... 2b1 b0 )
n2
2n R n1 n2

 Advantages:
1. Simple in Construction.
2. Fast conversion.

 Disadvantage:
1. The range of resistor values becomes impractical for binary words longer than 4 bits.
2. The dynamic range of the Op-Amp limits the selection of resistance values.
3. Expensive.

R – 2R Ladder D/A Converter

Fig.: 4 bit R – 2R Ladder DAC

 Fig. shows a 4-bit R–2R ladder D/A converter, which contains a reference voltage source, a set
of four switches, two resistors per bit, and an op amp.
 The analog output voltage can be shown to be;
Vo = Vref (− Rf/R) (b0 × 2−1 + b1 × 2−2 +· · ·+ bn−1 × 2−n)
 Advantages:
1. Because only two resistor values (R and 2R) are used, the R–2R ladder converter networks
are relatively simple to manufacture
2. Low cost.
3. Practical and reliable.

 Disadvantage:
1. More precise resistors required
2. Slower conversion rate compare to weighted resistor DAC.
2n – R D/A Converter
 An n-bit 2n –R D/A converter needs 2n resistors of equal value R and (2n+1 −2) analog switches.
 A 3-bit 2n −R D/A converter is shown in Fig., which includes the eight resistors connected in
series to form a voltage divider providing eight analog voltage levels, as well as 14 analog
switches controlled by the digital input code such that each code creates a single path from the
voltage divider to the converter output.

Fig.: 3 bit 2n – R D/A converter

 A unit-gain amplifier is connected to the output in order to prevent loading of the voltage divider.

 Advantages:
1. Because only single resistor values (R) are used, the 2n – R converter networks are relatively
simple to manufacture
2. Practical and reliable.

 Disadvantage:
1. 2n − R D/A converters are economically manufactured as LSI packages in spite of the large
number of components needed.
 V. Comparison of D/A Converter
Parameters Weighted Resistor R – 2R 2n – R
Conversion time Fast Moderate More
Accuracy Less Moderate More
Construction Simple Very simple Complex
Cost Moderate Less More
Reliability Less More Moderate

VI. Mode of Operation for D/A Converter

Current Steering Mode of Operation
 In the current steering mode of operation of a D/A converter, the analog output is a current
equal to the product of a reference voltage and a fractional binary value D of the input digital
word. Where,
𝐷= 2𝑛
−

1
2𝑛
2 −1
𝑛

E.g. For R – 2R DAC analog output voltage = − ) 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓

( 2𝑛

Voltage Switching Mode of Operation

 In the voltage switching mode of operation of R - 2R ladder type D/A converter, the reference
voltage is applied to the inverting terminal of op amp and the output is taken from the
reference voltage terminal. Non inverting terminal of op amp is joined to analog ground.

 E.g. For R – 2R DAC analog output voltage = − 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 (− Rf/R) (b0 × 2−1 + b1 × 2−2 +· · ·+ bn−1× 2−n)

VII. BCD Input D/A Converter

Fig. BCD input D/A converter
  A BCD-input D/A converter accepts the BCD equivalent of decimal digits at its input. A two-digit
BCD D/A converter for instance is an eight-bit D/A converter.
 Fig. shows the circuit representation of an eight-bit BCD-type D/A converter. Such a converter
has 99 steps and accepts decimal digits 00 to 99 at its input. A 12-bit converter will have 999
steps.
 The weight of the different bits in the least significant digit (LSD) will be 1 (for A 0), 2 (for B0), 4
(for C0) and 8 (for D0).
 The weights of the corresponding bits in the next higher digit will be 10 times the weights of
corresponding bits in the lower adjacent digit.
 For the D/A converter shown in Fig. the weight of the different bits in the most significant digit
(MSD) will be 10 (for A1), 20 (for B1), 40 (for C1) and 80 (for D1).
 In general, an n-bit D/A converter of the BCD input type will have (10n/4 − 1) steps.
 The percentage resolution of such a converter is given by [1/(10n/4 − 1)]×100.

VIII. Integrated Circuit (IC) D/A Converter

DAC – 08
 DAC-08 is an eight-bit monolithic D/A converter.

Fig.: DAC-08 for positive output operation Fig.: DAC-08 for negative output operation

 Advantages:
1. Less settling time
2. High voltage compliance
3. Wide power supply range
4. High linearity

 Applications:
o Waveform generators, servomotor driver, audio encoders and attenuators, analog meter
drivers, programmable power supplies, high-speed modems, CRT display drivers, etc.
DAC – 0808

Fig.: DAC 0808 wired as a voltage-output D/A converter

 Advantages:
1. Less settling time
2. More accuracy
3. Wide power supply range
4. High linearity
5. Direct interface with TTL, CMOS logic families

 Applications:
o Voltage output DAC

DAC AD-7524

Fig.: Functional diagram of AD 7524

  Advantages:
1. Direct interface with many 1. Monotonocity
microprocessor 2. High linearity
2. Less power dissipation 3. Wide power supply range

 Applications:
o Microprocessor-controlled gain setting and signal control applications.

IX. D/A Converter Applications

1. DAC as multiplier
2. DAC as divider
3. In programmable integrator
4. In low frequency function generator
5. In digitally controlled filter etc.

X. D/A Converter Examples

1. An eight-bit D/A converter has a step size of 20 mV. Determine the full-scale output and
percentage resolution.
Sol.:
• [1/(28 -1)]× V = 20 × 10−3, where V is the voltage corresponding to a logic ‘1’.
• This gives V = 20 × 10−3 × (28 - 1) = 5.1 V.
• The full-scale output = [(2n− 1)/2n] × V = [(28− 1)/28] × 5.12 = (255/256) × 5.12 = 5.1V.
• The percentage resolution = [1/(2n−1)] ×100 = 100/255 = 0.392%.
• The percentage resolution can also be determined from:
(Step size/full-scale output) × 100 = (20 × 10−3/5.1) × 100 = 0.392 %

±0.25% of full scale. Determine the range of expected analogue output for a digital input of
2. A certain eight-bit D/A converter has a full-scale output of 5 mA and a full-scale error of

10000010.
Sol.:
XI. Analog to Digital Converter (A/D Converter)
 The A/D converter converts analog input signals into digital output data in many areas such
process control, aircraft control, and telemetry. Being the interface between analog systems
and digital systems, it plays a key role in many industrial, commercial, and military systems.
 Several types of A/D converters exist: counter-controlled, successive-approximation, flash
(parallel comparators) and dual-ramp (dual-slope) converters.
 The commercially available LM311 is an example that is widely used by designers.

XII. A/D Converter Specifications/Performance Parameters

Resolution
 Resolution is ration of a change in input voltage needed to change the digital output by
1 LSB.
𝑉
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑖𝑛
; 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠
2𝑛 − 1
Accuracy
 The accuracy specification describes the maximum sum of all errors, both from analog
sources and from the digital sources of the A/D converter.

Gain and Offset Error

 The gain error is the difference between the actual full-scale transition voltage and the
ideal full-scale transition voltage.
 The offset error is the error at analogue zero for an A/D converter operating in bipolar
mode.

Gain and Offset Drift

 The gain drift is the change in the full-scale transition voltage measured over the entire
operating temperature range.
 The offset drift is the change with temperature in the analogue zero for an A/D converter
operating in bipolar mode.

Sampling Frequency and Aliasing Phenomenon

 According sampling theorem, the minimum rate at which the analog signal should sampled

𝑓𝑠 ≥ 2𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑁𝑦𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑛)

twice the highest frequency in the analog signal.

 If Nyquist criterion is not fulfilled then overlapping of signals is occur it is known as aliasing.
 Quantization Error
 The difference between an input value and its quantized value (such as round-off error) is
referred to as quantization error.

Non Linearity and Differential Non Linearity

 Non linearity is measure of the maximum deviation of actual ADC transfer function from
straight line drawn through the first and last code transition after correction for offset and
gain error.
 Differential non linearity is measure of the maximum of difference in the each conversion’s
Current Code Width (CCW) and the Ideal Code Width (ICW).

Conversion Time
 Total time required to convert an analog signal in to digital output.

Aperture and Acquisition Time

 Acquisition time is the time required for the electronic switch to close and the hold
capacitor to charge
 Aperture time is the time needed for the switch completely to open after the occurrence of
the hold signal.

Code Width
 The code width is the quantum of input voltage change that occurs between the output
codes transitions expressed in LSBs of full scale.

XIII. Types of A/D Converter

Counter Controlled A/D Converter

Fig.: counter-controlled A/D converter

  Resetting the binary counter to zero produces D/A output voltage V2 = 0 and initiates the
analog- to-digital conversion.
 When the analog input V1 is larger than the DAC (D/A converter) output voltage, the
comparator output will be high, thereby enabling the AND gate and incrementing the counter.
 V2 is increased as the counter gets incremented; when V2 is slightly greater than the analog
input signal, the comparator signal becomes low, thereby causing the AND gate to stop the
counter. The counter output at this point becomes the digital representation of the analog
input signal.
 The relatively long conversion time needed to encode the analog input signal is the major
disadvantage of this method.

Successive Approximation A/D Converter

Fig.: Successive Approximation A/D converter

 This converter, shown in Fig., also contains a D/A converter, but the binary counter is replaced
by a successive-approximation register (SAR), which makes the analog-to-digital conversion
much faster.
 On the other hand, if the signal to be converted is larger than the D/A computer output, then
the MSB remains 1. This procedure is repeated for each bit until the binary equivalent of the
input analog signal is obtained at the end.
 This method requires only n clock periods, compared to the 2n clock periods needed by the
counter-controlled A/D converter, where n is the number of bits required to encode the analog
signal.
Dual Ramp or Dual Slop A/D Converter

Fig.: Dual Ramp A/D converter

Fig.: Output of ramp generator in dual-ramp A/D converter

 After a start-of-conversion pulse, the counter is cleared and the analog input V in becomes the
input of the ramp generator (integrator). When the output of the ramp generator V o reaches
zero, the counter starts to count.
 After a fixed amount of time T, as shown in Fig., the output of the ramp generator is
proportional to the analog input signal. At the end of T, the reference voltage V ref is selected,
when the integrator gives out a ramp with a positive slope.
  As Vo increases, the counter is incremented until Vo reaches the comparator threshold voltage
of 0 V, when the counter stops being incremented again.
 The value of the counter becomes the binary code for the analog voltage V in, since the number
of clock pulses passing through the control logic gate for a time t is proportional to the analog
signal Vin.
 Dual-ramp A/D converters can provide accuracy at low cost, even though the process is slow
because a double clock pulse count is an inherent part of the process.

Flash Type A/D Converter

Fig.: 3 bit flash type ADC

 Flash Type ADC is based on the principle of comparing analog input voltage with a set of
reference voltages.
 To convert the analog input voltage into a digital signal of n-bit output, (2n – 1) comparators are
required.
 The seven (2n - 1) op-amps are used as comparators. The non-inverting inputs of all the seven
comparators are connected to the analog input voltage. The inverting terminals are connected
to a set of resistive divider network and power supply +V.
  The output of the comparator is in positive saturation (i.e. logic 1), when voltage at non-
inverting terminal is greater than voltage at inverting terminal and is in negative saturation
otherwise.
 A Priority Encoder is used to transform the comparator outputs to the correct digital binary
output.

 Advantages:
1. It is the fastest type.
2. Typical conversion time is 100ns or less.
3. The construction is simple and easier to design.

 Disadvantages:
1. It is not suitable for higher number of bits.
2. To convert the analog input voltage into a digital signal of n-bit output, (2n – 1) comparators
are required. The number of comparators required doubles for each added bit.

XIV. Integrated A/D Converters

ADC 0800
 ADC-0800 is a successive approximation type eight-bit A/D converter. The basic architecture of
ADC-0800 is shown in Fig.

Fig.: ADC 0800

ADC 0808
 ADC 0808 is an eight-bit CMOS successive approximation type A/D converter. The device has an
eight-channel multiplexer and a microprocessor-compatible control logic.
 Salient features of the device include eight-bit resolution, no missing codes, a conversion time
of 100 s (typical), stand-alone operation or easy interface to all microprocessors, a 0 - 5 V
analogue input range with a single 5 V supply and latched tristate outputs. Fig. shows the
internal architecture of the device.
 Fig.: Interfacing of ADC 0808

XV. Comparison of A/D Converter

Successive
Parameters Flash Type ADC Dual Slop ADC
Approximation ADC
Speed Fastest Fast Slow
Accuracy Less Medium More
Resolution Up to 28 Up to 216 216 or more
Input hold time Very less More than Flash type More
Cost Very costly Medium Less
Fiber optic Where more
Applications Data Acquisition
comm.,DSO etc. accuracy is required

XVI. A/D Converter Applications

1. Data acquisition system
2. Communication system
3. Digital multimeter
4. Cell phone
5. CRO etc.
XVII. A/D Converter Examples
1. Determine the resolution of a 12-bit A/D converter having a full-scale analogue input voltage
of 5 V.
Sol.:

2. The data sheet of a certain eight-bit A/D converter lists the following specifications:
resolution eight bits; full-scale error 0.02% of full scale; full-scale analogue input +5 V.
Determine (a) the quantization error (in volts) and (b) the total possible error (in volts).
Sol.:

XVIII. Points to consider of selection for D/A & A/D Converter

1. Accuracy
2. Resolution
3. Dynamic specifications
4. Conversion speed
5. Analog and digital input signal
6. Environmental condition
7. Sampling mechanism
8. Error etc.