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Module 2
SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE SELF
Introduction
With the advent of Social Science in the 18th
century, new ways of knowing have emerged. The
new discipline departed from Philosophy’s heavy
reliance on speculation and shifted to observation
as a valid approach to knowing what is real and true.
This new approach cultivated philosophical
objectivity in understanding the world, specifically
in its nature. Humanity started to be considered as
being part of the natural world and gained attention
as an acceptable subject of study.
Consequently, the self which was dominantly
regarded by Philosophers as whether or not a
concept of duality has been questioned by Social
Scientists. To re-examine the true nature of the self,
their focus shifted to the relationship of the self with
its external world. That is, with its constant interaction with the external reality, the self is shaped
by external forces that constitute society, community, and family among others.
In this chapter, the self is presented contrary to the philosophical view whereby the self is
considered as having two components the body and soul (or the body and mind). Self in this
chapter is emphasized as social by nature. Beginning from birth, it continuously interacts with its
external world which determines what it might be, what it can be, and what it will be.
Self as a Social Construct
The self as a social construct is derived from the idea that society which takes part in its
shaping is a social construction. Through social interaction and active understanding of the
social reality by collective actions of people, living together and their relationships become
meaningful. By active understanding, it means that individuals are not only passive participants
in their social life. Through language, they privately and publicly utilize or share symbols within
their interactions. This creates a pattern that shapes and influences who they are, how they
behave and think.
The Self and Society
In 1996, Steven (cited by Alata, EJ et. al., 2018) found in his literature reviews that self
has been characterized as separate, self-contained, independent, consistent, unitary and private.
Said characteristics suggest that self is distinct to others. It is self-contained and independent
because it can exist by itself. It is contained in its own thoughts, characteristics, and volition. It
does not allow other self for it to exist. It has a personality that is enduring or persists over time.
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It is centered on its experiences and thoughts. In implication, self is isolated from the external
world.
Taking the forefront when Philosophy started to lose its fame in the area of understanding
about the self, the discipline of Sociology asserts that humans cannot be understood apart from it
social context. Base on its idea, society is linked to the individual as they are inherently
connected and dependent on each other. Society being composed of a large social grouping
sharing in the same geographical territory implies that groups who are more or less living
together have the same cultures and predisposed to institutions which provide their physical,
social, and psychological needs and which maintain order and the values of the culture. It makes
us who we are by structuring our interactions and lay out an orderly world before us. As a result,
an individual is capable of seeing through his/her experiences and the larger society called
sociological imagination in which society creates opportunities for him/her to think and act as
well as limiting his/her thoughts and actions.
Sociological Theories of the Self
A. The Looking Glass Self by Charles Cooley
Charles Cooley pioneered one of the most
prominent Sociological perspectives of the self. He
asserted that individuals develop their concept of self
by looking at how others perceive them, hence, coined
his theory as “The Looking Glass Self”.
Using the view of others, Cooley denotes that
understanding of self is socially constructed. Through
social interaction, one’s sense of self is mirrored from
the judgments they receive from others to measure their
own worth, values, and behavior. This process involves
the following steps:
1. An individual in a social situation imagines how
they appear to others.
2. That individual imagines others’ judgment of
that appearance.
3. The individual develops feelings (of pride or shame) and responds to those perceived
judgments.
Seemingly, the theory of Charles Cooley is appealing if not complicated by some context
of interaction and nature of people involved in the process. Feedback for one plays an important
role in the process. However, not all feedback are taken or carried out in the same weight. Thus,
not all judgments or view of other people to one’s self may affect how he/she measure his/her
worth, values and behavior. For instance, some take responses from those whom they trust more
seriously than those of strangers. Misinterpretations of signals may also occur from the point of
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view of the person examining him/herself. One’s value system can be also taken into
consideration when thinking through any changes to their behavior or views of self. Ultimately,
people constantly seek to create consistency between their internal and external worlds and,
therefore, continue to perceive, adjust, and strive for equilibrium throughout their lives (Self and
Socialization, nd).
B. Theory of the Self-Development by George Herbert Mead
Similar to Charles Cooley’s theory of self, George Herbert Mead also emphasized other
perspectives in view of one’s self. As a prerequisite to being able to understand the self, one has
to develop self-awareness. This can be derived from looking at ourselves from the perspective of
others. For instance, we put ourselves into someone else’s shoes and look at the world through
that person’s perspective. This process is only made possible by social interaction. If social
interaction is absent, particularly in one’s early experiences, he/she will find difficulty in
developing an ability to see him/herself as others would see him/her. According to Mead, the
“self” in such a case is not being developed (Theory of Self Development,nd).
By stages, Mead states that the self develops through social interaction.
1. Preparatory
Stage: Children in this
stage are only capable
of imitating the actions
of others (i.e. people
they are particularly in
contact with such as
their family members).
They cannot imagine
how others see things.
2. Play Stage: At
this stage, children
begin to try to take
on the role of other people by acting out grown-up behaviors, dressing like adults, etc.

3. Game Stage: While children learn about several roles of others, they understand how these
roles interact with each other in this stage. They learn to understand complex interactions
involving different people with a variety of purposes. In a restaurant, for instance, a child
understands the different responsibilities of people who work together for a smooth sailing
experience. He/she understands that someone from the restaurant takes orders, others wash
dishes, cook the food, etc.).
4. Generalized other: In this stage, children develop, understand and learn the idea of the
common behavioral expectations of the general society. They are able to imagine how they are
viewed by one or many. Mead pointed out that “self” in this stage is being developed.
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The Self and Culture

The self should not be seen as a static entity which remains constant through time. It
persistently struggles with its external reality and is malleable in dealing with it. Being active
participant in its social world, the self, through interaction, is made and remade. As it
continuously interacts with others, society is continually changing and dynamic, so thus self.
Self being endlessly
exposed to its social world and is
subjected to its influences here
and there. While the social world
is changing and dynamic, being
the same person across time and
space therefore is illogical. In this
perspective, self is considered as
multi-faceted.
The Moi and Personne Self
Marcel Mauss and his
contemporaries claimed that
society is a result of a process
whereby actions of humans is
built upon everyday social
continuity. As an Anthropologist and Sociologist, he asserted that self adapts to its everyday
social condition. In particular, the behavior of human groups and the way they perceive
themselves in daily life are influenced by their environmental and seasonal variations. Everyday
life is an endless process of actions and exchanges between and among humans to sustain their
existence and meet their needs. Cultural identity therefore is intertwined with space and time
(Airton José Cavenaghi, 2016) making one’s self determined according to its circumstances and
context.
As a result of this notion, Marcel Mauss asserted that every self has two faces--the
personne and moi. MOI refers to a person’s sense of who he is, his body and his basic
identity, his biological givennes. It is a person’s basic identity. PERSONNE on the other hand,
is composed of the social concepts of what it means, to be who he is. It has much to do with what
it means to live in a particular institution, a particular family, a particular religion, a particular
nationality, and how to behave given expectations and influences from others. Personne
therefore shifts from time to time to adapt to his social situation (Alata, EJ et. al., 2018).
Various personne can be illustrated across cultures. In the Philippines, part of the Filipino
personne, of who they are, is their territory. This includes considering their immediate
surroundings as part of them, thus the perennial “tapat ko, linis ko”.
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The Language and Self

What purpose does language serve in the maturing child? Rees (1973) differentiates the
following five functions of language in children: (a) purely communicative function, (b) concept
formation function, (c) directive function, (d) magical function, and (e) function of establishing
self-concept. These five functions affect and complement each other.
1. Language as a Tool for
Self-Expression
Language allows
individuals to articulate their
thoughts, feelings, and
experiences. This self-
expression is crucial for
developing a sense of identity
and personal narrative.
2. Cognitive Development
Through language,
individuals learn to categorize their experiences, which contributes to self-awareness and
understanding.
3. Social Interaction
Language facilitates social interactions, which are essential for the development of the
self. Through conversations and relationships, individuals receive feedback and validation,
shaping their self-concept.
4. Internal Dialogue
The ability to engage in internal dialogue (self-talk) is often linked to language. This
internal narrative helps individuals process experiences, reflect on their actions, and make
decisions, further contributing to the development of the self.
5. Cultural Context
Language is deeply intertwined with culture, and the way individuals use language can
reflect and shape their cultural identity. This cultural aspect of language influences how people
perceive themselves and their place in the world.
6. Philosophical Perspectives
Philosophers like Wittgenstein have argued that the limits of one's language can shape the
limits of one's world. This suggests that language is not just a tool for communication but also a
framework for understanding oneself and one’s experiences.
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Language is an interesting aspect of who

Filipinos are. Filipinos articulate love with the famous
phrase " Mahal Kita. “This phrase, if translated into
English, means “I Love You. “Unlike in English, the
Filipino version of “I Love You” does not specify who
the subject and the object of love are. There is no
specification of who loves and who is being loved.
Interestingly, the word “mahal” in the
Philippines can both mean “love” and “expensive”.
Love is intimately bound with value while being
expensive means being precious. Putting together,
someone or something expensive is therefore valuable.
Someone whom we love is valuable. When taken from
its Sanskrit origin “lubh,” love can also mean desire.
Another interesting facet of the Filipino language is its being gender-neutral. The word
“siya” is used to refer to either a boy or a girl. In other languages specifically English and
Spanish, the demarcation between male and female pronouns is clear. In English, “he” refers to
male while “she” refers to female. “El” in Spanish refers to males while “ella” refers to females.
As these examples depict the cultural divide, it goes to show how one regards oneself
differently from others. The language which has something to do with one’s culture has a
tremendous effect on the crafting of the self.
As an offshoot of his theory previously presented, George Herbert Mead characterized the
self as “I” and “Me”. Based on the theory, an individual imports from the social process. As an
individual organism, he/she may display gestures on his/her own but takes a collective attitude of
others and reacts accordingly to their organized attitudes while in constant interaction with them.
The process according to Mead involves the creation of the two facets of self. The “me”
is the social self and the “I” is the response to the “me”. Both arising from the social process,
the “I” is the one responding to the attitudes of the others while the “me” is the result of the “I”
assuming the organized set of attitudes of the others (it is the result of the individual’s
accumulated understanding of the generalized other). The “I” learns about the “me”, hence, it is
the knower, while the “me” is the known. Ultimately, self is developed through language and
role-play where the child learns to delineate his/her “I” from the rest.
Together with George Herbert Mead, Lev Vygotsky stressed the important role of
language acquisition and interaction with others in human development. According to them,
the mind is made or constituted through language that one acquires or experiences with his/her
external world. This process is mediated by one’s internal dialogue with his/her own head.
Through it, he/she learns to internalize values, norms, practices, social beliefs, etc., Consistent
exposure to internal dialogues will eventually become part of one’s individual world. For Mead,
role-playing of children indicates that they create scripts in their head, thus a manifestation of
internal dialogue within the self. For Vygotsky, a child internalizes real-life dialogues that he/she
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had with others by recycling this during one of their mental and practical problem-solving
(Alata, et. al, 2018).
Self in Families
Every human is born helpless or dependent on the external world. The first group that one
interacts with and depend for the fulfilment of his/her needs is the family. As the basic social
institution, the family is the primary provider or source of a child’s needs (human, social,
economic). It is also the main avenue for teaching young individuals the basic things that they
need to learn in order to fit in the society. It has also the capacity to develop or encourage the
actualization of one’s potentials. These are all made possible by way of socialization whereby
one learns basic ways of living, language, values, etc. by way of imitating or observation or
teaching by an adult member of the family such as the mother and the father.
A child learns ways of living, his/her selfhood, by being with the family. Learning self in
the family is conscious or unconscious. If reared with a respectful family, then he/she becomes
respectful. If raised in a conversational
family, then he/she becomes conversational.
Ways of living that are explicitly taught are
those that are basic for the child to learn such
as table manners, speaking with an elder, etc.
Through rewards and punishments, some
behaviors and attitudes are indirectly taught
to a child. For example, talking about sexual
behavior or how to comfort emotions is
internalized by a child through interpreting
the intonation of voice by adults or of their
model in the family. This point out that
becoming an adult who does not learn about
basic matters such as manners or conduct indicates the failure of the family to initiate him/her
into the world. In this sense, the initial conception of selfhood for social survival and becoming a
human person is learned in the family.
Another important aspect of the social process within the family is the learning of gender
by a child. Gender partly determines how one sees him/herself in the world. Though gender is
considered as one aspect of the self that is subject to alteration, change, and development, it is
noteworthy that its concept is primarily acquired in the family.
In a relatively conservative culture such as the Philippines for instance, husbands for the
most part are expected to provide for the family. Exposed to this kind of system, the sons in the
family internalize an inkling of being a future provider to behave and think like a man. Female
members of the family who are mostly exposed to their mother’s roles tend to imitate the same
mentality of women as care providers in the family according to Nancy Chodorow, a Feminist
(cited in Alata, et. al, 2018). Providing dolls instead of guns to girls also reinforces the notion of
what roles they should take and, thus, the kind of self-concept they should develop.