Some educators and researchers now add a fourth R: Reflect.

To retlect means to
try to think critically about what you have read by trying to tie the concepts into what
you already know, thinking about how you can use the information in your own life,
and deciding which of the topics you've covered interests you enough to look for more
information on that topic (Richardson &Morgan, 1997). For example, if you have learned
about the genetic basis for depression, you might better understand why that disorder
seems to run in your best friend's family.
Reading textbooks in this way means that, when it comes time for the final exam,
all you will have to do is carefully review your notes to be ready for the exam-you
won't have to read the entire textbook all over again. What a time saver! Recent research
suggests that the most important steps in this method are the three Rs: read, recite, and
review. In two experiments with college students, researchers found that when com
pared with other study methods such as rereading and note-taking study strategies, the
3R strategy produced superior recall of the material (McDaniel et al., 2009).

Practice Quiz How much do you remember?

Pick the best answer.
1. What does the S in Sa3R stand for? 3. Candice has surveyed the material, developed questions to con
a. survey c. synthesize sider, and begun reading the material to find the answers to her
b, study d. stand questions. What should she do next?
2. As you read the text material, you should a. Recite out loud what she can remember trom the section she just
read
a. use a highlighter so that you don't waste time writing notes.
b. Reread the material a second time.
b. avoid taking notes while reading so that you can concentrate on
the material C. Review the material from the chapter that she has read.
C. make an outline of the main points and key terms. d. Retain the material by committing it to memory.
d. read the entire chapter all at once.

Getting the Most Out of Lectures

Identify the best methods for taking notes and listening in class.
As mentioned earlier, mastering course content means you have to attend the lectures.
Even if lectures are online, you have to read or watch them. But just attending or read
ing or watching is not enough; you have to process the information just as you have to
process the text material. To get the most out of lectures, you need to take notes on the

Learning 213

content, and taking notes involves quite a bit more than just writing down the words the
instructor says or printing out the PowerPoint slides.
One very important fact you must remember: PowerPoint slides are not meant to
be notes at all; they are merely talking points that help the instructor follow a particular
sequence in lecturing. Typically, the instructor will have more to say about each point on
the slide, and that is the information students should be listening to and writing
down. In
Table PLA.1, the suggestion to use highlighters of different colors is not meant to
replace
taking notes but instead to supplement the notes you do take.
How should you take notes? As stated earlier, you should try to take notes while
reading the chapter (before attending the lecture) by writing down the main points and
the vocabulary terms in your own words as much as possible. This forces you to think
about what you are reading. The more you think about it, the more likely it is that the
concepts will become a part of your permanent memory.
Taking notes while listening to the lecture is a slightly different procedure.
you should have your notes from your earlier reading in front of you, and First,
it helps to
leave plenty of space between lines to add notes from the lecture. A major
by many students is to come to the lecture without mistake made
having read the material first. This
is an EXTREMELY BAD IDEA. If you come to the
lecture totally
have no idea what is important enough to write down and what isunprepared, you will
just the instructor's
asides and commentary. Reading the material first gives you a good idea
is important in the lecture and reduces the amount of
of exactly what
notes you must take.
THINKING CRITICALLY
What are some reasons w
committing infommnties gnhe instructor's POwerPoints miaht be beneficial ie

There is an art to really listening to someone, too, often

listeners make eye contact with the speaker and called active listening. Active
sit facing the speaker in a place
where they can easily hear and see the speaker. Active
listeners focus on what is
being said rather than how the speaker looks or sounds (not
ask questions when they do not understand always an easy task) and
something or need a clarification. Asking
questions during a lecture is a good way to stay engaged in
speaker's
Smessage.
actively processing the
Ask your instructor if you can bring a digital recorder
You will then be able to listen during the to class to record the lecture.
class and use the recording to take notes from
later. Some students may prefer to jot down diagrams, charts, and other
with their written notes. When you have good visual aids along
notes
from the lectures, you will also have ready-made study taken while reading the text and
The next section deals with the best aids for preparing to take exams.
ways to study for examns.

Practice Quiz
Pick the best answer.
How much do you remember?

1. To maximize success, which method

of note-taking
should
Juan use? 2. Avery maintains eye contact when listening to
a. He should take notes in his own
words as much
also places herself so that she can see and her instructors. She
hear the instructors.
as possible. Additionally, she works to listen to the content of the lecture instead
b. He should write down every
word trom the PowerPoint slides of focusing on how they look or what they
be described as a(n) are wearing. Avery would
used in class.
c. He should highlight the text a. accomplished student
rather than writing his own notes.
d. He should make sure that his b. active listener:
notes sccontain the exact words uSed
by his instructor. c. passive listener.
d. social listener.
214 CHAPTER 5

Studying for Exams: Cramming

Is Not an Option
Describe how to approach studying for exams.
Inevitably, the time will come when your instructor wants some hard evidence that you
have truly learned at least some of the material to which you have been exposed. There
is a right way to study for a test, believe it or not. Here are some good things to remem
ber when preparing for an exam, whether it's a quiz, a unit test, a midterm, or a final
(Carter et al., 2005; Reynolds, 2002):
Timing is everything. One of the worst things that students can do is to wait until
the last minute to study for an exam. Remember the analogy about "chewing" the
steak? (Just as a steak has to be chewed to be enjoyed and to be useful to the body,
textbook material has to be "chewed" with the mind.) The same concept applies to
preparing for an exam: You have to give yourself enough time. If you've read your
text material and taken good notes as discussed in the previous sections, vou'll be
able to save a lot of time in studying for the exam, but you still need to give yourself
ample time to go over all of those notes. The time management tips given earlier in
this chapter will help you prioritize your studying.
" Find out as much as you can about the type of test and the material it will cover.
The type of test can affect the way in which you want to study the material. An objec
tive test, for example, such as multiple-choice or true/false, is usually fairly close to
the text material, so you'll want to be very familiar with the wording of concepts and
definitions in the text, although this is not a suggestion to memorize a lot of material.
These kinds of tests can include one of three types of questions:
Factual: Questions that ask you to remember a specific fact from the text material.
For example, "Who built the first psychological laboratory?" requires that you rec
ognize a person's name. (The answer is Wilhelm Wundt.)
" Applied: Questions that ask you to use, or apply, information presented in the text.
For example, consider the following question:
Ever since she was scared by a dog as a young child, Angelica has been afraid
of all dogs. The fact that she is afraid not only of the original dog but of all types of
dogs is an example of
a. stimulus generalization.
b. stimulus discrimination.
c. spontaneous recovery.
d. shaping
This question requires you to take a concept (in this case, generalization) and
apply it to a real-world example.
Conceptual: Questions that demand that you think about the ideas or concepts pre
sented in the text and demonstrate that you understand them by answering ques
tions like the following: "Freud is to, as Watson is to " (The
answers could vary, but a good set would be "the unconscious" and "observable
behavior.")
Notice that although memorizing facts might help on the first type of question,
it isn't going to help at all on the last two. Memorization doesn't always help on fac
tual questions either, because the questions are sometimes worded quite differently
from the text. It is far better to understand the information rather than be able to "spit

Learning 215

it back" without understanding it. "Spitting it back" is memorization; understanding

it is true learning. There are different levels of analysis for information you are try
ing to learn, and the higher the level of analysis, the more likely you are to remember
(Anderson et al., 2001; Bloom, 1956). Factual questions are the lowest level of analysis:
knowledge. Applied questions are a higher level and are often preferred by instructors
for that reason--it's hard to successfully apply information if you don't really under
stand it. Conceptual questions are a kind of analysis, a level higher than either of the other
two. Not only do you have to understand the concept, you have to understand it well
enough to compare and contrast it with other concepts. They might be harder ques
tions to answer, but in the long run, you will get more "bang for your buck" in terms of
true learning.
Subjective tests, such as essay tests and short-answer exams, require not only that
you are able to recall and understand the information from the course but also that you
are able to organize it in your own words. To study for a subjective test means that you
need to be familiar with the material and that you need to be able to write it down. Make
outlines of your notes. Rewrite both reading and lecture notes and make flash cards,
charts, and drawings. Practice putting the flash cards in order. Talk out loud or study
with someone else and discuss the possible questions that could be on an essay test. You
might find that only a few of these methods work best for you, but the more ways in
which you try to study, the better you will be able to retrieve the information when
en you
need it. It may sound like a big investment of your time, but most students vastly under
estimate how long it takes to study--and fail to recognize that many of these techniques
are doable when first reading the textbook assignment and preparing for the classroom
lecture. DON'T CRAM!
You might also look at old tests (if the instructor has made them available) to see
what kinds of questions are usually asked. If this is not possible, make sure that you pay
close attention to the kinds of questions asked on the first exam so that you will know
how to prepare for future tests. Write out your own test questions as if you were the
instructor. Not only does this force you to think about the material the way it will appear
on the test, it also provides a great review tool. Other helpful advice:
" Use SQ3R. You can use the same method that you used to read the text material

|||
to go over vour ngtes Skim throuch vour notes. try to think of possible test auese
Use SO3R. You can use the same method that you used to read the text material
to go over your notes. Skim through your notes, try to think of possible test ques
cions, recite the main ideas and definitions of terms, either out loud, into a digital
ecorder, or to a friend or study group. Review by Summarizing
s sections of mate
al or by making an outline or flash cards that you can use in studying important
Dncepts.
se the concept maps if provided. When surveying the chapter, make sure you
Dk over any concept maps. Concept maps area visual organization of the key
ncepts, terms, and definitions that are found in each section and are an excellent
vto "see" how various concepts are linked together (Carnot et al., 2001; Novak
5; Wu et al., 2004), They are also a great way to review the chapter once you
finished reading it, just to check for understandingif the concept maps don't
ce sense, then you've missed something and need to go back over the relevant
on. You can also make your own concept maps as you take notes on the chap
good resource for the background behind concept maps and how to use them
cmap.ihmc.us/Publications/ResearchPapers/TheoryCmaps/TheoryUnderly concept map
onceptMaps.htm an organized visual representation of
advantage of all the publisher's test and review materials. Practice does knowledge consisting of concepts and
nd most textbooks come with a study guide or a Web site. Those materials their relationships to other concepts.

should have practice quizzes availabletake them. The more types of quiz ques
tions you try to answer, the more successful you will be at interpreting the ques
tions on the actual exam. You'll also get a very good idea of the areas that you need
to go back and review again. And remember, retrieval practice, or actually testing
your recall through tests or quizzes, is agreat way to improve long-term learning
(Karpicke, 2012; Karpicke &Blunt, 201), even when just thinking about the infor
mation or rehearsing it in your mind (Smith et al., 2013)! Retrievalal practice
pr works
better than simply restudying. The key is testing your retrieval of information, not
your recognition of information. Also, a good resource of study helps created by
Joe Landsberger is the Web site Study Guides and Strategies, available at www.
studygs.net.
" Make use of the resources. lf you find that you are having difficulty with certain
concepts, go to the instructor well in advance of the exam for help. (This is another
good reason to manage your study time so that you aren't trying to do everything
in a few hours the night before the exam.) There are help centers on most college
and university campuses with people who can help you learn to study, organize
your notes, or tutor you in the subject area.
Don't forget your physical needs. Studies have shown that not getting enough
slep is bad for memory and learning processes (Stickgold et al, 2001; Vecsey et al.,
2009). Try to stop studying an hour or so before going to bed at a reasonable time
to give your body time to relax and unwind. Get a full night's sleep if possible. Do
not take sleep-inducing medications or drink alcohol, as these substances prevent
normal stages of sleep, including the stage that seems to be the most useful for
memory and learning (Davis et al., 2003). Do eat breakfast; hunger is harmful to
memory and mental performance. Abreakfast heavy on protein and light on carbo
hydrates is the best for concentration and recall (Benton &Parker, 1998; Dani et al.,
2005; Pollitt &Matthews, 1998; Stubbs et al., 1996).
" Use your test time wisely. When taking the test, don't allow yourself to get stuck
on one question that you can't seem to answer. If an answer isn't clear, skip that
question and go on to others. After finishing all of the questions that you can
answer easily, go back to the ones you have skipped and try to answer them again.
This accomplishes several things: You get to experience success in answering the
questions that you can answer, which makes you feel more confident and relaxed;
other questions on the test might act as memory cues for the exact information you
need for one of those questions you skipped; and once you are more relaxed, you
may find that the answers to those seemingly impossible questions are now clear
because anxiety is no longer blocking them. This is a way of reducing stress by
dealing directly with the problem, one of many ways of dealing effectively with
stress.

THINKING CRITICALLY

Many elementary and secondary school programs now offer breakfast to their students. What foods
would benefit these children the most and why?

Learning 217

much do you remember?

an example of? True or 4, What is the value of retrieval practice?

holns incroaso long-term learning
 1. Which category is the following question an example of? Trueor 4. What is the value of retrieval practice?
False: Psychology is the study of behavior and mental processes. a. It helps increase long-term learning.
a. factual question b. It allows students more opportunities to study.
b. conceptual question c. It assists only in preparing for essay-based exams.
C. applied question d. No research exists to prove that retrieval practice is effective.
d. critical question
5. Simply spitting information back out on a test is likely more indicative
2. Which questions are the highest level of analysis and often consid of , while truly understanding information is more
ered the hardest to answer on a test? indicative of actual
a. factual C. conceptual a. memorization; learning
b. applied d. true/Malse b. learning: mernorization
C. behavior: action
3, Tom Studying for his first psychology exam. What should he do to
ensure he remembers al tnatat rhe has studied? d. a process; a gift
a. Wait to study until just before the scheduled exam, so that the
intormation will be fresh in his mind.
b. Study all night long before the exam-he can sleep after the test.
c. Memorize as much of the intormation as possible.
d. Begin studying many days in advance to give his brain time to
commit the material to memory and repeatedy test his retrieval of
intormation.

Improving Your Memory

Explain how using mnemonics can help you improve your memory for facts and
concepts.
Everyone needs a little memory help now and then. Even memory experts use strat
egies to help them perform their unusual feats of remembering. These strategies may
be unique to that individual, but there are many memory "tricks" that are quite simple
and available for anyone to learn and use. A memory trick or strategy to help peo
ple remember is called a mnemonic, from the Greek word for memory. Take a look at
Figure 5.8 to see examples of a few of the more popular mnemonics, some of which
may sound familiar:
mnemonic
Linking. Make a list in which items to be remnembered are linked in some way. If
trying to remember a list of the planets in the solar system, for example, a person a strategy or trick for aiding memory.

Figure 5.8 Populatr Mnemonics

218 CHAPTER 5

could string the names of the planets together like this: Mercury was the messen
ger god, who carried lots of love notes to Venus, the beautiful goddess who sprang
from the Earth's sea. She was married to Mars, her brother, which didn't please her
father Jupiter or his father Saturn, and his uncle Uranus complained to the sea god,
Neptune. That sounds likea lot, but once linked in this way, the names of the plan
ets are easy to recall in proper order.
" The peg-word method. In this method, it is necessary to first memorize a series
of "peg" words, numbered words that can be used as keys for remembering items
associated with them. A typical series of peg words is:
One is a bun. Six is bricks.
Two isa shoe. Seven is heaven.
Three is a tree. Eight is a gate.
Four is a door. Nine is a line.
Five is a hive. Ten is a hen.

" To use this method, each item to be remembered is associated with a peg word and made
into an image. For instance, if you are trying to remember the parts of the nervous sys
tem, you might picture the brain stuck inside a bun, the spinal cord growing out of a shoe
or with shoes hanging off of it, and the peripheral nerves as the branches ofa tree.
" The method of loci (LOW-kee or LOW-si). In this method, the person pictures a
very familiar room or series of rooms in a house or other building. Each point of
the information is then made into an image and "placed" mentally in the room at
certain locations. For example, if the first point was about military spending, the
image might be a soldier standing in the doorway of the house throwing money
out into the street. Each point would have its place, and all the person would need
to do to retrieve the memories would be to take a "mental walk" around the house.

Verbal/rhythmic organization. How do you spell relief? If, when spelling a word
with an ie or an ei in it, you resort to the old rhyme "I before E except after C, or
when sounded as Aas in neighbor or weigh," you have made use of a verbal/rhyth
mic organization mnemonic. "Thirty days hath September, April, June, and Novem
ber ..." is another example of this technique. Setting information into a rhyme aids
memory because it uses verbal cues, rhyming words, and the rhythm of the poem
itself to aid retrieval. Sometimes this method is accomplished through making a
sentence by using the first letters of each word to be remembered and making them
into new words that form a sentence. The colors of the rainbow are ROY G. BIV (red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet). The notes on the musical staff are
"Every Good Boy Does Fine." There are countless examples of this technique.

|||
 into new words that form a sentence. The colors of the rainbow are ROY G. BIV (red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet). The notes on the musical staff are
"Every Good Boy Does Fine." There are countless examples of this technique.
" Put it to music (a version of the rhythmic method). Some people have had success
with making up little songs, using familiar tunes, to remember specific informa
tion. The best example of this? The alphabet song.

Practice Quiz
Pick the best answer:
How much do you remember?

1. Which of the following is NOT one of the mnemonic techniques 2. "My very excellent mother just served us nine pizzas" is a mnemonic
described in this chapter? for remembering the order of the planets in our solar system (includ
a. method of loci ing poor, downgraded Pluto, of course). What kind of mnemonic is
b. rote memorization this?
C. linking a. method of loci C. peg-word
d. peg-word b. linking d. verbal/rhythmic organization

Learning 219

Writing Papers
Describe the key steps in writing papers for college.
Several steps are involved in writing a paper, whether it be a short paper or a long one.
You should begin all of these steps well in advance of the due date for the paper (not the
night before):
1. Choose a topic. The first step is to choose a topic for your paper. In some cases, the
instructor may have a list of acceptable subjects, which makes your job easier. If
that is not the case, don't be afraid to go to your instructor during office hours and
talk about some possible topics. Try to choose a topic that interests you, one that
you would like to learn more about. The most common mistake students make is to
choose subject matter that is too broad. For example, the topic "autism" could fill a
book. A narrower focus might discuss a single form of autism in detail. Again, your
instructor can help you narrow down your topic choices.
2. Do the research. Find as many sources as vou can that have information about
your topic. Don't limit yourself to textbooks. Go to your school library and ask the
librarian to point you in the direction of some good scientific journals that would
have useful information on the subject. Be very careful about using the Internet to
do research: Not everything on the Internet is correct or written by true experts
avoid ther students' papers and "encyclopedia" Web sites that can be written and
updated by darn near anyone.
3. Take notes. While reading about your topic, take careful notes to remember key
points and write down the reference that will go along with the reading. References
for psychology papers are usually going to be in APA (American Psychological
Association) style, which can be found at www.apastyle.org.
Taking good notes helps you avoid using the materials you find in their
exact or nearly exact form, a form of cheating we'll discuss more in a later module
of this chapter.
4. Decide on the thesis. The thesis is the central message of your paper-the message
you want to communicate to your audience-which may be your instructor, your
classmates, or both, depending on the nature of the assignment. Some papers are
persuasive, which means the author is trying to convince the reader of a particular
point of view, such as "Autism is not caused by immunizations." Some papers are
informative, providing information about a topic to an audience that may have no
prior knowledge, such as "Several forms of autism have been identified."
5. Write an outline. Using your notes from all your readings, create an outline of your
In earlier times, people actually had to write
paper--a kind of "road map" of how the paper will go. Start with an introduction (e.g., or type their first, second, and sometimes
a brief definition and discussion of what autism is). Then decide what the body of the
third drafts on real paper. The advent of
paper should be. If your paper is about a specific type of autism, for example, your computers with word-processing programs
outline might include sections about the possible causes of that type. The last section of that allow simple editing and revision has no
your outline should be some kind of conclusion. For example, you might have recom doubt saved a lot of trees from the paper
mendations about how parents of a child with autism can best help that child develop mill. This also means there is no good
as fully as possible. excuse for failing to write a first draft and
proofreading one's work.
6. Write a first draft. Write your paper using the outline and your notes as guides.
If using APA style, place citations with all of your statements and assertions. Fail
ure to use citations (which point to the particular reference work from which your
information came) is also a common mistake that many students make.
It is very important that you avoid plagiarism, as discussed in Step 3. When
you use a source, you are supposed to explain the information that you are using in
your own words and cite the source, as in the following example:

220 CHAPTER 5

In one study conparing both identical and fraternal twins, researchers found that stressfiul
life events of the kind listed in the SRRS were excellent predictors of the onset of episodes of
major depression (Kendler & Prescott, 1999).
Your paper's reference section would have the following citation: Kendler, K. S., &
Prescott, C.A. (1999). Paon-based twin study
of lifetinmoemajor depression
in men and womon es of General Psychiatry, 56(1), 39-44. [Author's note: The
number in front of the parentheses is the volume of the journal, the one inside is the
issue number, and the last numbers are the page numbers of that article.]
7. Let it sit. Take a few days (if you have been good about starting the paper on time) to let

|||
C
 7. Let it sit. Take a few days (if you have been good about starting the paper on time) to let
the paper sit without readingg it. Then go back over and mark places that don't sound
right and need more explanation, a citation, or any other changes. This is much easier
to do after a few days away from the paper; the need to reword will be more obvious.
8. Write the revised draft. Some people do more than one draft, while others do only
a first draft and a final. In any case, revise the draft carefully, making sure to check
your citations-and your spelling!

Practice Quiz How much do you remember?

Pick the best answer.
1. Tamlka has developed and researched a topic for her paper. 3. Once you have writtenen the tfirst draft, what should you do?
What should she do next? a. Submit it to the instructor, as your first draft is usually the best
a. Begin writing a rough draft of her paper. effort.
b. Begin writing as if her first draft willbe her final draft. b. Let it sit a few days betore going back over it to make
G. Develop an outline as a road map to help her stay on track when corrections.
writing her paper. c. Immediately write the second or final draft before the material
d. Let everything sit for a couple of days before beginning her rough gets too stale for you to remember why you wrote it the way
draft. you did
d. Write the outine of the paper, which is easier to do once the
2. Which of the following would be a more manageable topic for a tem
paper is already.
paper?
a. mental illness c. causes of schizophrenia
b. learning d. human development

Your Ethical Responsibility as a Student

ldentify some of the key ethical considerations that you'll face as a student.
Many students have been tempted to take short-cuts in their educational process.
Sometimes the short-cut takes the form of plagiarism, the copying of someone else's
ideas or exact words (or a close imitation of the words) and presenting them as your
own. When you cite someone else's work in your paper, you have to give them credit
for that work. If you don't, you have committed plagiarism, whether you meant to
do so or not, and this is theft. With all the tools instructors have at their beck and call
these days, they are likely to uncover any plagiarism. In taking credit for someone
else's work, you hurt yourself and your reputation in a number of ways. You don't
actually learn anything (because if you don't put it in your own words, you haven't
really understood it), which means you aren't giving yourself the chance to develop
plagiarism the skills and knowledge you will need in your future career. You also put your integ
the copying of someone else's exact rity and honesty as a person under close scrutiny. Plagiarism shows disrespect for
words (or a close imitation of the words) your peers as well-they did their own work and expected you to do the same (Penn
and presenting them as your own. sylvania State University, 2014).

Learning 221

How can you avoid plagiarizing? First, remember that if you want to use the actual
words from your source, you should put them inside quotation marks and then include
the reference or citation, including page numbers. If you want to use the ideas but don't
want to plagiarize, try taking brief notes on the source material (preferably from more
than one source) and then use your notes-not the actual source-to write the ideas in
your own words. There are some free online tools that can be used to check for plagiarism
by both instructors and students, such as Plagiarism Checker at http://smallseotools.
com/plagiarism-checker/ or Grammarly's Grammar and Plagiarism Checker at https://
www.grammarly.com/plagiarism-checker.
There are also some good online resources for learning about what plagiarism is
and how to avoid it. One is OWL, the Purdue Online Writing Lab at https://owl.english.
purdue.edu/owl/resource/589/1/. Another is Indiana University's Writing Tutorial
Services (WTS) at htp://www.indiana.edu/-wts/pamphlets/plagiarism.shtml. Finally,
Accredited Schools Online has a site called Understanding & Preventing Plagiarism:
Strategies &Resources for Students and Teachers at http://www.accreditedschoolson
line.org/resources/preventing-plagiarism/. These and the plagiarism checker sites in
the previous paragraph are just a few of many resources available online.
Another ethical responsibility that vou have as a student is to not cheat. Most
colleges and universities have honor codes about academic integrity, and cheating
of any kind can have somne fairly severe consequences. Cheating can also involve
copying answers from someone else's test as you look over their shoulder, stealing
tests to get the answers before the exam, or even having someone else take your test
for you, among others. Sadly, cheating in school is sti very common. A survey of
more than 23,000 American high school students (both private and public as well as
charter school students) conducted by the Josephson Institute Center for Youth Ethics
(2012) found that in 2012, a little more than half of the students admitted to cheating
on an exam at least once, and a little more than a fourth of the students said they
had cheated more than once. Cheating at the college or university level also happens
more often that it should, and even the most prestigious universities are not immune:
In 2012 Harvard University investigated more than 125 undergraduates for plagia
rism and other forms of cheating (Galante & Zeveloff, 2012).
Cheating involves many of the same concerns as plagiarism; you don't learn,
and your instructors and peers will not respect you. In the long run, both plagiarism
and cheating hurt you far more than any temporary relief you might get from these
actions.

Practice Quiz How much do you remember?

PiCk the best answer.

1. Michael is writing a paper for psychology. One of his sOurces is a text C. Use only part of the infomation, but make sure he uses his own
in which the following statement appears: language.
d. All of the above are acceptable.
When a deeply depressed mood comes on fairly suddenly and either
seems to be too severe for the circumstances or exists without any 2. In the Josephson Center suvey, how many students reported cheat
tornal oauce for c a d o aat loget
 Practice Quiz How much do you remember?
Pick the best answer.

1. Michael is writing a paper for psychology. One of his sources is a text C. Use only part of the information, but make sure he uses his own
in which the following statement appears: language.
d. All of the above are acceptable.
When a deeply depressed mood comes on fairly suddenly and either
seems to be too severe for the circumstances or exists without any 2. In the Josephson Center survey, how many students reported cheat
external cause for sadness, it is called major depressive disorder. ing at least once?
a. About one fourth.
Which of the following would NOT be an acceptable way for Michael
b. A little more than half.
to use this material in his pape?
C. A litte more than three fourths.
a. Put the entire sentence in quotation marks and cite the author
and textbook information where he found the quote. d. The survey found no reported incidences of cheating.
b. Summarize the ideas in the sentence in his own words.

222 CHAPTER 5

Chapter Summary
Definition of Learning What's In It for Me? Operant Conditioning
5.1 Define the term learning. 5.4 ldentify the contributions of Thorndike and
" Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior Skinner to the concept of operant conditioning.
brought about by experience or practice and is different from " Thorndike developed the law of effect: A response fol
maturation, which is genetically controlled. lowed by a pleasurable consequence will be repeated, but a
response followed by an unpleasant consequenceowill not be
repeated.
It Makes Your Mouth Water: Classical Conditioning
"B. F. Skinner named the learning of voluntary responses "oper
5.2 Identify the key elements of classical conditioning ant conditioning" because voluntary responses are what we use
as demonstrated in Pavlov's classic experiment. to operate in the world around us.
Pavlov accidentally discovered the phenomenon in which one 5.5 Diferentiate between primary and secondary
stimulus can, through pairing with another stimulus, come to pro reinforcers and positive and negative reinforcement.
duce a similar response. He called this "classical conditioning. " Skinner developed the concept of reinforcement, the process
The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is the stimulus that is natu of strengthening a response by following it with a pleasurable,
rally occurring and produces the innate, or involuntary, uncon rewarding consequence.
ditioned response (UCR). Both are called "unconditioned"
"A primary reinforcer is something such as food or water that
because they are not learned. satisfies a basic, natural drive, whereas a secondary reinforcer is
The conditioned stimulus (CS) begins as a neutral stimulus, something that becomes reinforcing only after being paired with
but when paired with the unconditioned stimulus, it eventu a primary reinforcer.
ally begins to elicit an involuntary, and automatic behavior on " In positive reinforcement, a response is followed by the presen
its own. The response to the conditioned stimulus is called the tation of a pleasurable stimulus, whereas in negative reinforce
"conditioned response" (CR), and both stimulus and response ment, a response is followed by the removal or avoidance of an
are learned. unpleasant stimuluS.
" Pavlov paired a sound with the presentation of food to dogs Shaping is the reinforcement of successive approximations to
and discovered several principles for classical conditioning: some final goal, allowing behavior to be molded from simple
The neutral stimulus (NS) and UCS must be paired several behavior already present in the organism.
times, and the CS must precede the UCS by only a few seconds. Extinction, generalization and discrimination, and spontaneous
" Other important aspects of classical conditioning include stim recovery also occur in operant conditioning.
ulus generalization,, stimulus discrimination, extinction, sponta
neous recovery, and higher-order conditioning. 5.6 Identify the four schedules of reinforcement.
5.3 Apply classical conditioning to examples "Continuous reinforcement occurs when each and every correct
response is followed by a reinforcer.
of phobias, taste aversions, and drug dependency.
" Watson was able to demonstrate that an emotional disorder Partial reinforcement, in which only some correct responses are
followed by reinforcement, is much more resistant to extinction.
called a phobia could be learned through classical conditioning This is called the partial reinforcement effect.
by exposing a baby to a white rat and a loud noise, producing
conditioned fear of the rat in the baby. " In a fixed interval schedule of reinforcement, at least one correct
response must be made within a set interval of time to obtain
Conditioned taste aversions occur when an organism becomes
reinforcement.
nauseated some time after eating a certain food, which then
becomes aversive to the organism. In a variable interval schedule of reinforcement, reinforcement
" Some kinds of conditioned easily learned follows the first correct response made after an interval of time
S are more
of h i n l that changes for each reinforcement opportunity.
han others because
thar preparedness.
. Pavlov believed that the NS became a substitute for the UCS " In a fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement, a certain number of
through association in time. responses is required before reinforcement is given.
"The cognitive perspective asserts that the CS has to provide " In a variable ratio schedule of reinforcement, a varying number
some kind of information or expectancy about the coming of the of responses is required to obtain reinforcement.
UCS in order for conditioning to occur.

Learning 223

termed this
 5.7 Identify the effect that punishment has on behavior. the maze once reinforcement became possible. He termed this
" Punishment is any event or stimulus that, when following a hidden learning latent learning, a form of cognitive learning.
response, makes that response less likely to happen again. 5.11 Explain how Köhler's studies demonstrated that
In punishment by application, a response is followed by the animals can learn by insight.
application or experiencing of an unpleasant stimulus, such as " Köhler found evidence of insight, the sudden perception of the
a spanking. relationships among elements of a problem, in chimpanzees.
In punishment by removal, a response i followed by the
removal of some pleasurable stimulus, such as taking away a 5.12 Summarize Seligman's studies on learned
child's toy for misbehavior. helplessness.
A person who uses aggressive punishment, such as spanking, " Seligman found that dogs that had been placed in an inescap
can act as a model for aggressive behavior. This will increase able situation failed to try to escape when it became possible to
do so, remaining in the painful situation as if helpless to leave.
aggressive behavior in the one being punished, which is an
undesirable response. Seligman called this phenomenon "learned helplessness" and
found parallels between learned helplessness and depression.
" Punishment of both kinds normally has only a temporary effect
on behavior.
Punishment can be made more effective by making it immedi Observational Learning
ate and consistent and by pairing punishment of the undesirable
behavior with reinforcement of the desirable one. 5.13 Describe the process of observational learning.
" Observational learning is acquired by watching others perform,
5.8 Explain the concepts of discriminant stimuli, or model, certain actions.
extinction, generalization, and spontaneous recovery as "Bandura's famous Bobo doll experimentit demonstrated that
they relate to operant conditioning. young children will imitate the aggressive actions of a model
Discriminative stimuli are cues, such as a flashing light on a even when there is no reinforcement for doing so.
police car or a sign on a door that says "Open," which provide
information about what response to make in order to obtain 5.14 List the four elements of observational learning.
reinforcement.
Bandura determined that four elements needed to be present for
Shaping, extinction, generalization and discrimination, observational learning to occur: attention, memory, imitation,
and spontaneous recovery are other concepts in operant and desire.
conditioning.
" Instinctive drift is the tendency for an animal that is being
trained by operant conditioning to revert to instinctive patterns Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Can You
of behavior rather than maintaining the trained behavior. Really Toilet Train Your Cat?
5.9 Describe how operant conditioning is used to 5.15 Describe an example of conditioning in the
change animal and human behavior. real world.

Operant conditioning can be used in many settings on both " Writer Karawynn Long used shaping, reinforcement, and classi
animals and people to change, or modify, behavior. This use is cal conditioning to train her cat to use the toilet in her bathroom
termed behavior modification and includes the use of reinforce instead of a litter box.
ment and shaping to alter behavior. 5.16 Identify four methods of studying.
Token economies are a type of behavior modification in which
Research has shown that using multiple learning methods to
secondary reinforcers, or tokens, are used.
study is a useful and effective strategy.
Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is the modern version of Four common learning methods are verbal, visual, auditory, and
behavior modification and makes use of functional analysis and action methods.
behavioral techniques to change human behavior.
Neurofeedback is a modified version of biofeedback in which a
person learns to modify the activity of his or her brain. Managing Time
5.17 Describe some strategies for time
Cognitive Learning Theory management.
" Making or using a calendar of prioritized tasks, breaking tasks
5.10 Explain the concept of latent learning. down into smaller ones, and avoiding multitasking are some
Cognitive learning theory states that learning requires cogni ways to improve time management.
tion, or the influence of an organism's thought processes.
Tolman found that rats that were allowed to wander in a maze
but were not reinforced stil showed evidence of having learned

224 CHAPTER 5

Reading the Text: Textbooks Are Not Meatloaf Improving Your Memory
5.18 Describe how to read a textbook so that you get the 5.21 Explain how using mnemonics can help you
most out of your reading efforts. improve your memory for facts and concepts.
" Textbooks must be read in a different way from novels or popular There are memory strategies called mnemonics, including meth
books. ods that use imagery, rhymes, linking, and even music to improve
" The SQ3R method is an excellent way to approach reading a text memory.
book: survey, question, read, recite, review.

Writing Papers
Getting the Most Out of Lectures
5.22 Describe the key steps in writing papers for college.
5.19 Identify the best methods for taking notes and " Key steps in writing a research paper are to choose a topic, read
listening in class. about the topic, take notes on your reading, decide upon the cen
" Notes should be in your own words and written or typed, not tral message of your paper, write an outline, complete a first draft,
highlighted in the text or on handouts. and allow the paper to sit for a few days before going back and
writing the final draft.
" When taking notes from a lecture, you should be prepared by hav
ing the notes from your reading in front of you; some people may
benefit from recording the lecture and taking notes afterward. Your Ethical Responsibility as a Student
5.23 Identify some of the key ethical considerations that
Studying for Exams: Cramming Is Not an Option you'll face as a student.
5.20 Describe how to approach studying for exams. " Students need to realize that plagiarism and cheating in school
" Don't wait until the last minute to study: are harmful to the students and disrespectful to others.
" Find out about the types of questions on the exam.
" Use concept maps, the SQ3R method, and publishers practice-test
materials.
" Engage in retrieval practice; test your recall, not just recognition,
of conternt often.
" Get plenty of sleep and eat breakfast, preferably something with
protein.

Test Yourself
Pick the best answer.
 protein.

Test Yourself
Plck the best answer.

1. Shella almost got hit by a car at a street corner because she was accidentaly ratte his leash, he isn't going for a walk, and subsequently
too busy textiog on bor eben . Sheila koks hofefore running to the front door What has orred
she reaches the street corner. Her change in is a resut ot yeneral Spontaneous recOvery
a. learning. C. motivation. b. rimination d. extinction
b. memory. d. both sensation and perception. 5. Rhonda had tartar sauce with her fish one night. The next morning
2. At home, you rattle the chain on your dog's leash every time you she was nauseated and sick for much of the day. The next time
prepare to take him for a walk. After several episodes like this, you she was offered the chance to go out for fish, she felt queasy and
find that your dog comes running to the front door even when you declined. Her queasiness at the thought of fish with tartar sauce
was probably due to
pick up the leash to put it back in the closet. In this example. what
is the conditioned stimulus? a. higher-order conditioning. C. stimulus substitution.
a. going for a walk C. the front door b. a conditioned taste aversion d. stimulus generalization.
b. the sound of the leash d. the dog runs to the door 6. Caitlin works in the psychology department's rat lab. In her studies,
she found that many of her lab rats would develop a conditioned
3. A child has been classically conditioned to fear a white rat. If the Caitlin'e
child does not show fear when shown a black rat, this is called taste aversion to certain foods after as little as one tial
Psychology professor refers to this as a cascie le of
a. stimulus generalization. c. spontaneous recovery.
d. Diological preparedness.
b. stimulus discrimination. d. extinction. b. psychological preparedness.
4. During the cold winter, you have stopped taking your dog for walks c. instinctive drift.
What's more, your dog has gotten used to the fact that when you d. stimulus substitution.

Learning 225

7. Blake finds that if he washes his car prior to going out on the town, C The animals studied would learn skills through reinforcement,
more of his friends want to ride along with him. What theory would and they remained that way no matter how much reinforcement
best explain his willingness to always wash and clean his car before they were given.
going out? d. The animals studied could only learn skills similar to those found
a. Thorndike's law of effect in the wild.
b. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning 17. Jose was lying in bed when he suddenly realized how he might
G. Pavlov's theory of classical conditioning deal witha fast-approaching deadline at work. When his coworkers
8. In classical conditioning, behavior typically i whereas with asked how he came up with his idea, he said, "lIt just came to me
operant conditioning, behavior is out of nowhere." Psychologists would refer to this as
a. rewarded: punished c. voluntary: involuntary a. latent learning. c. insight learning.
b. biological: internal d. involuntary: voluntary b. learned helplessness. d. observational learning
9. Where do secondary reinforcers get their power from? 18. Jody failed repeatedly in college algebra. Finally, she gave up and
a. Classical conditioning c. Observational theory was seriously considering dropping out of college. One day, her
b. Law of effect d. Insight theory best friend offered to personally help her if she signed up for col
10. Positive reinforcement results in in the target behavior and lege algebra again, but she refused. What concept might explain
her reluctance?
negative reinforcement resuts ir in the target behavior. a. latent learning C. insight learning
a. an increase; a decrease C. a decrease; a decrease
b. learned helplessness d. observational learning
b. an increase; an increase d. a decrease; an increase
19. What does AMID stand for?
11. Belinda has a terible headache. If she takes some aspirin so as to
a. Attention, Memory, Intention, Detention
make her headache go away, this would be an example of b. Attention, Memory, Imitation, Desire
a. positive reintorcement. C. punishment
c. Ask, Memory. Imitate, Develop
b. negative reinforcement. d. generalization. d. Association, Memory. Imitation, Desires
12. Ben gets paid every 2 weeks. In one 2-week period, he works a
20. Darla has noticed how some of her friends have lost weight and
total of 20 hours. During another 2-week period, he worked a total
gotten trim by exercising 1 to 2 hours each day. However, she has
of 50 hours. Regardless of the total number of hours he works no plans to imitate their behavior. What component of Bandura's
each week, he is paid every2 weeks. What schedule of reintorce model of observational learning will explain why Darla has not
ment is being used?
started a similar weight-loss program?
a. fixed ratio C. fixed interval
a. Darla's unconscious does not believe she can achieve the goal.
b. variable ratio d. variable interval
b. Darla is not motivated, nor does she have the desire to begin
13. Denise is grounded for coming home after curtew. Additionally. her the program.
parents have taken away her cell phone for a month. Losing her c. Darla's self-esteem must first be addressed.
cell phone privileges is an example of d. Darla's unwillingness may be a sign of mental disorder.
a. negative reinforcement. c. punishment by removal.
b. punishment by application. d. learned helplessness. 21. Cody learns best whenever he can see things laid out before him.
He uses flash cards and concept maps and often tries to redraw
14. What is the relationship between negative reinforcement and charts and figures from memory. What learning method does Cody
punishment?
seem to prefer?
a. Both tend to strengthen a response. a. verbal c. auditory
b. Both tend to weaken a response. b. visual d. action
Negative reinforcement rengthens
c. Negalve a response, while punish
22. Which of the following is NOT one of the strategies far defeating
ment weakens a response. procrastination?
d. Negative reinforcement weakens a response, while punishment
strengthens a response. a. Make a map of long-term goals.
b. Use a calendar,
15 Which of the following is an example of the use of extinction with C. Stay up all night to finish your task.
operant conditioning? d. Break big tasks down into smaller, more manageable pieces.
a. Amother ignores her child's temper tantrum so that the behav
23. What learning aid gives the student the ability to more effectively
ior ultimately goes away. read and remember material?
b. A mother gives in to her child's demands for candy by buying a. chapter summaries C. SQ3R
the child some chocolate so as to quiet him or her. b. content maps d. practice quizzes
C. Amother spanks a child when he or she starts throwing a
tantrum. 24. Which of the fllowing is NOT a mistake often made by students
d. A mother gives a child chocolate prior to him or her asking for it when taking notes?
so as to keep a tantrum from occurring in the first place. a. Taking notes while reading the chapter before going to the
lecture.
16. Studies by Keller and Marian Breland found that many animals
exhibit instinctive drift. What does this mean? b. Highlighting material in the textbook as the instructor lectures.
c. Make sure you have not read the chapter before the lecture so
a. The animals studied could not learn any skills even with the use that the material will be fresher and more memorable.
of reinforcement.
d. Use the PowerPoint slides as your notes.
b. The animals studied would learn skills through reintorcement
but eventualy revert to their genetically controlled patterns of 25. What type of question requires that you understand the material so
behavior. well that you are able to compare and contrast it to other material?

226 CHAPTER 5

a. factual C. conceptual a. linking

b. applied d. true/talse b. peg-word
G. method of loci
26. Your mom wants you to eat some breaktast before going off to
your first psychology exam. What will you tell her? d. verbalrhythmic organization
 d. Use the PowerPoint slides as your notes.
b. The animals studied would learn skills through reinforcerment
but eventualy revert to their genetically controlled patterns of 25. What type of question requires that you understand the material so
behavior. well that you are able to compare and contrast it to other material?

226 CHAPTER 5

a. factual C. conceptual a. linking

b. applied d. true/talse b. peg-word
C. method of loci
26. Your mom wants you to eat some breaktast before going off to
your first psychology exam. What will you tel her? d. verbal/rhythmic organization
a. No thanks. A big meal will probably put me to sleep. 29. What is one of the most common mistakes students make when
b. Sounds good. Can I have some cereal and toast? choosing a topic for a research paper?
C. All l want is some cofee. Caffeine will help me do my best! a. The topic is too broad.
d. Thank you. Just some ham and eggs and maybe a small slice b. The topic is too narrow.
of bread. G. The topic is unclear.
27. Tabitha is stuck on a question while taking her psychology exam. d. The topic has no research to support it
What should she do? 30. Keela has finished a draft of her research paper almost 2 weeks
a. Stay on that question until she can fiqure out what the answer is. before the date it is due. What should she do now?
b. Go on to the other questions. Maytbe she can find a clue to the a. Let it sit for a few days before reviewing it.
one she skipped. b. Complete the final draft immediately while the material is still
C. Take a guess as to the correct answer. She probably will get it fresh in her head.
correct anyway. C. Hand in her rough draft as if it were the final draft. Most students
d. Revievw the questions she already has answered to find a cue tend to make their paper worse when they revise it.
there. d. Keela needs to start again, since papers finished early tend not
to be well written.
28. Which mnemonic involves first memorizing a series of numbered
words?