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Lecture PowerPoint

Chemistry
The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change
3rd Canadian Edition
Silberberg, Amateis, Venkateswaran, Chen

Chapter 2:
The Components of Matter

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Chapter 2:
The Components of Matter

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By the end of this chapter you will be able to:

• Relate the three types of matter—elements, compounds, and mixtures—to the simple chemical
entities that comprise them—atoms, ions, and molecules. More complex entities, such as network
covalent solids and macromolecules, will be discussed later.
• Explain how the elements are organized in the periodic table and introduce the two major ways in
which elements combine.

• Derive the name and formula of a compound and calculate its mass.

• Depict molecules using models used by chemists.

• Classify mixtures and explain how to separate them.

• Differentiate between the components of matter.

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Chapter Overview
2.1 - Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures: An Atomic Overview

2.6 - Elements: A First Look at the Periodic Table

2.7 - Compounds: An Introduction to Bonding

2.8 - Formula, Name, and Mass of a Compound

2.9 - Mixtures: Classification and Separation

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2.1 - Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures: An Atomic Overview

Matter can be classified into three types based on its composition:

1. An element is the simplest type of matter with

unique physical and chemical properties. It consists of
only one kind of atom and, cannot be broken down into
a simpler type of matter by any physical or chemical
methods.

2. A compound consists of two or more different elements

that are bonded chemically. The elements in a compound
are not just mixed together: their atoms have joined in a
chemical reaction.

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2.1 - Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures: An Atomic Overview

Matter can be classified into three types based on its composition:

3. A mixture consists of two or more substances (elements and/or

compounds) that are physically intermingled. A mixture is not a
substance, the components of a mixture can vary in their parts by
mass.

Unlike compounds, mixtures can be separated into their components

by physical changes; chemical changes are not needed.

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2.1 - Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures: An Atomic Overview

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2.2 - The Observations That Led to an Atomic View of Matter

Law of Mass Conservation:
The total mass of substances does not change during a chemical reaction. The number of substances
may change and, by definition, their properties must, but the total amount of matter remains
constant.

Mass conservation
means that, matter
cannot be created
or destroyed.

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2.2 - The Observations That Led to an Atomic View of Matter

Law of Definite (or constant) Composition:
No matter what its source, a particular compound is composed of the same elements in
the same parts (fractions) by mass. The fraction by mass (mass fraction) is the part of
the compound’s mass that each element contributes.

Mass Fraction:
The fraction by mass (mass fraction) is the part of the compound’s mass that each element
contributes. It is obtained by dividing the mass of each element by the mass of the compound.

Mass Percent:

The percent by mass (mass percent, mass %) is the fraction by mass expressed as a
percentage (multiplied by 100).
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2.2 - The Observations That Led to an Atomic View of Matter

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2.4 - The Observations That Led to the Nuclear Atom Model

Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus:

In 1910, New Zealand-born physicist Ernest Rutherford tested the J. J. Thomson “plum
pudding” model of an atom—a spherical atom composed of diffuse, positively charged
matter with electrons embedded like “raisins in a plum pudding” using α-particles and
obtained an unexpected result.

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2.4 - The Observations That Led to the Nuclear Atom Model

Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus:

Calculations based on the mass, charge, and velocity of the α particles and the proportion
of these large-angle deflections showed that:

• an atom is mostly empty space occupied by electrons

• in the centre is a tiny region, which Rutherford called the nucleus, that contains all the
positive charge and essentially all the mass of the atom

Rutherford proposed that positive particles lay within the nucleus and called them protons.

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2.5 - The Atomic Theory Today

Structure of the Atom:

An atomic nucleus consists of:

• Protons (p+) which have a positive charge and;

• Neutrons (n0) which have zero charge

All elemental atoms are neutral because the number of protons in the nucleus equals
the number of electrons surrounding the nucleus.

• Electrons (e-) have a negative charge

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2.5 - The Atomic Theory Today

Structure of the Atom:

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2.5 - The Atomic Theory Today

Structure of the Atom:

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2.5 - The Atomic Theory Today

Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Atomic Symbol:

• The atomic number (Z) of an element equals the number of protons in the nucleus of each of
its atoms. All atoms of an element have the same atomic number, and the atomic number of
each element is different from that of any other element.

• The mass number (A) is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
Each proton and each neutron contributes one unit to the mass number.

• The atomic symbol (or element symbol) of an element is based on its English, Latin, or Greek
name, such as C for carbon, S for sulfur, and Na for sodium (from the Latin natrium).

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2.5 - The Atomic Theory Today

Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Atomic Symbol:

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2.5 - The Atomic Theory Today

Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Atomic Symbol:

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2.5 - The Atomic Theory Today

Isotopes:

• All atoms of an element have the same atomic number but not necessarily the same
mass number. Isotopes of an element are atoms that have different numbers of
neutrons and therefore different mass numbers.

• The chemical properties of an element are primarily determined by the number of

electrons, so all isotopes of an element have nearly identical chemical behaviour, even
though they have different masses

• The mass number is usually used to denote isotopes of an element (eg. 12C, 13C, and 14C
are all isotopes of Carbon)

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2.5 - The Atomic Theory Today

Atomic Masses of the Elements:

• The mass of an atom is measured relative to the mass of an atomic standard. The
modern standard is the carbon-12 atom, whose mass is defined as exactly 12 atomic
mass units.

• The unified atomic mass unit (u) is 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

• The atomic mass of an element, is the average of the masses of its naturally occurring
isotopes weighted according to their abundances.

• The dalton (Da) is another unit which is sometimes used and is equivalent to 1u.

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2.5 - The Atomic Theory Today

Atomic Masses of the Elements:
• Example calculation of atomic mass:

The relative abundance of 28Si is 92.23% (or 0.9223), 29Si is 4.67% and 30Si is 3.10%.

Multiplying the isotopic mass of 28Si by its fractional abundance gives the portion of the atomic
mass of Si that is contributed by 28Si:

Portion of Si atomic mass from 28Si = 27.976 93 u × 0.9223 = 25.8031 u

We do the same to the portions contributed by 29Si (28.976 495 u × 0.0467 = 1.3532 u) and by
30Si (29.973 770 u × 0.0310 = 0.9292 u).

Adding the three portions together gives the atomic mass of silicon:

Atomic mass of Si = 25.8031 u + 1.3532 u + 0.9292 u = 28.0855 u = 28.09 u

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2.6 - Elements: A First Look at the Periodic Table

Organization of the Periodic Table:

1. Each element has a box that contains its atomic number, atomic symbol, and atomic mass. The
boxes lie, from left to right, in order of increasing atomic number (number of protons in the
nucleus).

2. The boxes are arranged into a grid of periods (horizontal rows) and groups (vertical columns).
Each period has a number from 1 to 7. Each group has a number from 1 to 18.

3. Groups 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18 contain the main-group elements. Groups 3 to 12 contain
the transition elements. Two horizontal series of inner transition elements, the lanthanides and
the actinides, fit between the elements in Group 3 and Group 4 and are placed below the main
body of the table.

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2.6 - Elements: A First Look at the Periodic Table

Organization of the Periodic Table:

As of November 30, 2016, the

n=7 shell is complete. Elements
113, 115, 117 and 118 were
officially recognized as
nihonium (Nh), moscovium
(Mc), tennessine (Ts) and
oganesson (Og).

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2.6 - Elements: A First Look at the Periodic Table

Classifying the Elements:

• The metals lie in the large lower-left portion of the table. About three-quarters of the
elements are metals. They are generally shiny solids at room temperature and conduct
heat and electricity well. They can be tooled into sheets (are malleable) and wires (are
ductile).

• The nonmetals (yellow) lie in the small upper-right portion of the table. They are
generally gases or dull, brittle solids at room temperature and conduct heat and electricity
poorly.

• The metalloids (green; also called semimetals), which lie along the staircase line, have
properties between those of metals and nonmetals.

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2.6 - Elements: A First Look at the Periodic Table

Classifying the Elements:

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2.7 - An Introduction to Bonding

Elements combine in two general ways, and both ways involve the electrons of
the atoms of interacting elements:

1. Transferring electrons from one element to another to form ionic compounds

2. Sharing electrons between atoms of different elements to form covalent

compounds

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2.7 - An Introduction to Bonding

The Formation of Ionic Compounds:

Ionic compounds are composed of ions, charged particles that form when an atom
(or small group of atoms) gains or loses one or more electrons. The simplest type of
ionic compound is a binary ionic compound, a compound composed of two
elements. It typically forms when a metal reacts with a non-metal:

• Each metal atom loses one or more electrons and becomes a cation, a positively
charged ion.

• Each non-metal atom gains one or more electrons and becomes an anion, a
negatively charged ion.

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2.7 - An Introduction to Bonding

The Case of Sodium Chloride:

All binary ionic compounds are solid arrays of oppositely charged ions.

In the formation of sodium chloride from sodium metal and chlorine gas:

• A sodium atom loses one electron and forms a sodium cation, Na+.

• A chlorine atom gains the electron and becomes a chloride anion, Cl-.

• The oppositely charged ions (Na+ and Cl-) attract each other. The resulting solid
aggregation is a regular array of alternating Na+ and Cl- ions that extends in all
three dimensions.
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2.7 - An Introduction to Bonding

The Case of Sodium Chloride:

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2.7 - An Introduction to Bonding

Predicting the Number of Electrons Lost or Gained:

• Metals lose electrons: Elements in Group 1 lose one electron, elements in Group 2 lose two electrons, and
aluminum in Group 13 loses three electrons.

• Nonmetals gain electrons: Elements in Group 17 gain one electron, oxygen and sulfur in Group 16 gain two
electrons, and nitrogen in Group 15 gains three electrons.

• The Elements gain or lose electrons to attain the closest noble gas electron configuration (Group 18)

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2.7 - An Introduction to Bonding

The Formation of Covalent Compounds:

• Covalent compounds form when elements, usually nonmetals, share electrons.

• In a covalent bond, a pair of electrons is mutually attracted by two nuclei. The result
is a molecule, in which each electron no longer “belongs” to a particular atom.

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2.7 - An Introduction to Bonding

The Formation of Covalent Compounds:

• Covalent compounds form when elements,

usually nonmetals, share electrons.

• In a covalent bond, a pair of electrons is

mutually attracted by two nuclei. The result is
a molecule, in which each electron no longer
“belongs” to a particular atom.

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2.7 - An Introduction to Bonding

The Formation of Covalent Compounds:

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2.7 - An Introduction to Bonding

Distinguishing the Entities in Covalent and Ionic Substances:

• Most covalent substances consist of molecules. A cup of water, for example,

consists of individual water molecules near one another.

• There are no molecules in an ionic compound. A piece of sodium chloride, is a

continuous 3-D array, of oppositely charged sodium and chloride ions.

Polyatomic Ions: Covalent Bonds within Ions:

• Many ionic compounds contain polyatomic ions, which consist of two or more atoms
bonded covalently and have a net positive or negative charge.

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2.8 - Formula, Name, and Mass of a Compound

Binary Ionic Compounds:

• For all ionic compounds, the name and formula give the
cation first and the anion second.

• For all binary ionic compounds, the name of the cation

is the name of the metal, and the name of the anion has
the suffix -ide added to the root of the name of the
nonmetal.

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2.8 - Formula, Name, and Mass of a Compound

Binary Ionic Compounds:

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2.8 - Formula, Name, and Mass of a Compound

Binary Ionic Compounds:

• Because an ionic compound consists of an array of ions rather than separate molecules,
its formula represents the formula unit, the relative numbers of cations and anions in
the compound.

• The charge of each ion is used to determine the formula unit.

• For example, in the case of calcium bromide the +2 charge of the calcium needs to be
balanced by two -1 charges from the bromine in order to make a neutral compound.

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2.8 - Formula, Name, and Mass of a Compound

Binary Ionic Compounds:

• Using the charges we are able to determine that the formula unit should be:

• We do not need the subscript 1 for calcium so the formula becomes:

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2.8 - Formula, Name, and Mass of a Compound

Binary Ionic Compounds:

• Subscripts need to be reduced to the lowest common denominator so for example:

Ca2+ O2- Ca2O2

Needs to be reduced to:

CaO

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2.8 - Formula, Name, and Mass of a Compound

Compounds with Metals That Form More Than One Ion:

• Many metals, particularly the transition elements (Groups 3 to 12), can form more than
one ion.

• Names of compounds containing these elements include a roman numeral within

parentheses immediately after the metal ion’s name to indicate its ionic charge.

• For example, iron can form Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions. The two compounds that iron forms with
chlorine are FeCl2, named iron(II) chloride, and FeCl3, named iron(III) chloride

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2.8 - Formula, Name, and Mass of a Compound

Compounds with Metals That Form More Than One Ion:

• Common names are still used. In

the common name, the Latin root
of the metal is followed by either
of two suffixes:

• The suffix -ous for the ion with

the lower charge

• The suffix -ic for the ion with the

higher charge

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2.8 - Formula, Name, and Mass of a Compound

Compounds That Contain Polyatomic Ions:

• Many ionic compounds contain polyatomic ions.

• Polyatomic ions stay together as a single charged unit and do not

break apart.

• When two or more of the same polyatomic ion are present in a

formula unit, this ion appears in parentheses with the subscript
written outside.

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2.8 - Formula, Name, and Mass of a Compound

Families of Oxoanions:

Most polyatomic ions are oxoanions (or oxyanions), ions in which an element, usually a
nonmetal, is bonded to one or more oxygen atoms

For families with two oxoanions:

• The ion with more O atoms takes the nonmetal root and the suffix -ate.
• The ion with fewer O atoms takes the nonmetal root and the suffix -ite.

For families with four oxoanions:

• The ion with the most O atoms has the prefix per-, the nonmetal root, and the suffix -ate.
• The ion with one fewer O atom has just the root and the suffix -ate.
• The ion with two fewer O atoms has just the root and the suffix -ite.
• The ion with the least (three fewer) O atoms has the prefix hypo-, the root, and the suffix -ite.
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2.8 - Formula, Name, and Mass of a Compound

Families of Oxoanions:

Most polyatomic ions are oxoanions (or oxyanions), ions in which an element, usually a
nonmetal, is bonded to one or more oxygen atoms

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2.8 - Formula, Name, and Mass of a Compound

Hydrated Ionic Compounds:

• Ionic compounds called hydrates have a specific number of

water molecules in each formula unit, which is shown after a
centred dot in the formula
(eg. MgSO4∙ 7H2O).

• To name these compounds we use a numerical prefix in front

of the name hydrate (eg. MgSO4 ∙ 7H2O is magnesium sulfate
heptahydrate).

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2.8 - Formula, Name, and Mass of a Compound

Acid Names from Anion Names :

1. Binary acid solutions form when certain gaseous compounds dissolve in water. For
example, hydrogen chloride (HCl) dissolves in water, it forms hydrochloric acid

Naming Binary Acids:

prefix hydro + nonmetal root + suffix -ic + separate word acid

hydro + chlor + ic + acid

• This naming pattern holds for many compounds in which hydrogen combines with an
anion that has an -ide suffix.

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2.8 - Formula, Name, and Mass of a Compound

Acid Names from Anion Names :

2. Oxoacid names are similar to the names of the oxoanions, except for two suffix changes:

• The -ate in the anion becomes -ic in the acid.

• The -ite in the anion becomes -ous in the acid.

The oxoanion prefixes hypo- and per- are retained.

Thus, BrO4- is perbromate, and HBrO4 is perbromic acid.

IO2- is iodite, and HIO2 is iodous acid.

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2.8 - Formula, Name, and Mass of a Compound

Binary Covalent Compounds:
Binary covalent compounds are typically formed by the combination of two non-metals.

• The element with the lower group number in the periodic table comes first in the name. The element with
the higher group number comes second and is named with its root and the suffix -ide. (Exception: When the
compound contains oxygen and any of the halogens chlorine, bromine, and iodine, the halogen is named
first.)

• If both elements are in the same group, the element with the higher period number is named first.

• Covalent compounds use Greek numerical prefixes to indicate the number of atoms of each element. The
first element in the name has a prefix only when more than one atom of it is present; the second element
usually has a prefix.

• When the second element name begins with a vowel, we usually drop the vowel attached to the prefix. For
example, we say dinitrogen tetroxide, not dinitrogen tetraoxide.

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2.8 - Formula, Name, and Mass of a Compound

The Simplest Organic Compounds: Straight-Chain Alkanes

• Alkanes are hydrocarbons, the simplest type of organic

compound and contain only carbon and hydrogen.

• Alkanes are named with a root, based on the number of C

atoms in the chain, followed by the suffix -ane.

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2.8 - Formula, Name, and Mass of a Compound

Representing Molecules with a Formula and a Model:

• A molecular formula uses element symbols and numerical subscripts to give the
actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule of the compound:

H2O

• A structural formula shows the relative placement and connections of the atoms in a
molecule. It uses symbols for the atoms and either a pair of dots (electron-dot formula)
or a line (bond-line formula) to show the bonds between the atoms:

H:O:H H-O-H
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2.8 - Formula, Name, and Mass of a Compound

Representing Molecules with a Formula and a Model:

• In models, coloured balls represent atoms. A ball-and-stick model shows atoms as balls
and bonds as sticks. The angles between the bonds are accurate. This type of model
exaggerates the distance between atoms:

• A space-filling model is an accurately scaled-up image of the molecule, so it shows the

relative sizes of the atoms, the relative distances between the nuclei (centres of the
spheres), and the angles between the bonds:

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2.8 - Formula, Name, and Mass of a Compound

Representing Molecules with a Formula and a Model:

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2.8 - Formula, Name, and Mass of a Compound

Representing Molecules with a Formula and a Model:

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2.9 - Mixtures: Classification and Separation

Recall that mixtures differ from compounds in three major ways:

1. The proportions of the components can vary.

2. The individual properties of the components are observable.

3. The components can be separated by physical means.

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2.9 - Mixtures: Classification and Separation

There are two broad classes of mixtures:

• A heterogeneous mixture has one or more visible boundaries between the components.
Its composition is not uniform, and varies from one region to another.

• A homogeneous mixture (or solution) has no visible boundaries because the components
are individual atoms, ions, or molecules. Its composition is uniform. There is no way to tell
visually whether a sample of matter is a substance (element or compound) or a
homogeneous mixture.

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2.9 - Mixtures: Classification and Separation

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FIGURE 2.21 The

classification of matter
from a chemical point of
view
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Can you SOLVE these problems using what

you learned in this chapter?

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Chapter Summary:

• Atoms, ions, and molecules make up the three types of matter—elements,

compounds, and mixtures.

• The Law of Mass Conservation, Law of Definite Proportions and the Law of
Multiple Proportions govern the formation of chemical entities.

• All atoms are composed of electrons, protons and neutrons and the number of
protons defines each type of atom.

• The elements are organized into periods and groups in the periodic table.

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Chapter Summary:

• Elements combine to form either covalent or ionic compounds which can be

named.

• Molecules can be depicted using various models.

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Key Equations:

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Key Concepts:

1. Define the characteristics of the three types of matter—element, compound,

and mixture—on the macroscopic and atomic scales. (§2.1)

2. Discuss the significance of the three mass laws—mass conservation, definite

composition, and multiple proportions—and identify their key characteristics.
(§2.2)

3. Summarize the postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory and how it explains the
mass laws. (§2.3)

4. Compare and contrast the major contribution of experiments by Thomson,

Millikan, and Rutherford to our understanding of atomic structure. (§2.4)

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Key Concepts:
5. Characterize the structure of the atom, the main features of the subatomic
particles, and the importance of isotopes. (§2.5)

6. Explain the format of the periodic table, and identify the general location
and characteristics of metals, metalloids, and non-metals. (§2.6)

7. Compare and contrast the essential features of ionic and covalent

compounds and the distinction between them. (§2.7)

8. Categorize the types of mixtures and their properties. (§2.9)

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Key Skills:
1. Distinguish between elements, compounds, and mixtures on the atomic scale. (SP
2.1)

2. Apply the idea of the mass ratio of element to compound to find the mass of an
element in a compound. (SP 2.2)

3. Visualize the mass laws. (SP 2.3)

4. Express the subatomic makeup of an isotope using atomic notation. (SP 2.4)

5. Calculate an atomic mass from isotopic composition. (SP 2.5)

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Key Skills:

6. Predict the monatomic ion formed from a main-group element. (SP 2.6)

7. Name and write the formula for an ionic compound formed from the ions in
Tables 2.3 to 2.5. (SPs 2.7–2.12, 2.16)

8. Name and write the formula for a binary covalent compound. (SPs 2.13, 2.14,
2.16)

9. Calculate the molecular or formula mass of a compound. (SP 2.15)

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