UNIT-3

Hydraulic Modifications
Dewatering or construction dewatering are terms used to describe the action of removing
groundwater or surface water from a construction site. Normally dewatering process is done by
pumping or evaporation and is usually done before excavation for footings or to lower water
table that might be causing problems during excavations. Dewatering can also be known as the
process of removing water from soil by wet classification.
PURPOSES FOR DEWATERING
• For construction excavations or permanent structures that are below the water table and are
not waterproof or are waterproof but are not designed to resist the hydrostatic pressure
• Permanent dewatering systems are far less commonly used than temporary or construction
dewatering systems
• To provide suitable working surface of the bottom of the excavation.
• To stabilize the banks of the excavation thus avoiding the hazards of slides and sloughing.
• To prevent disturbance of the soil at the bottom of excavation caused by boils or piping. Such
disturbances may reduce the bearing power of the soil.
• Lowering the water table can also be utilized to increase the effective weight of the soil and
consolidate the soil layers. Reducing lateral loads on sheeting and bracing is another way of
use.
VARIOUS METHODS OF DEWATERING
¬ Surface water control like ditches, training walls, embankments. Simple methods of
diverting surface water, open excavations.
¬ Simple pumping equipment. Gravity drainage. Relatively impermeable soils. Open
excavations especially on sloping sites. Simple pumping equipment.
¬ Sump pumping
¬ WellPoint systems with suction pumps.
¬ Shallow (bored) wells with pumps.
¬ Deep (bored) wells with pumps.¬ Educator system
¬ Drainage galleries. Removal of large quantities of water for dam abutments, cut-offs,
landslides etc. Large quantities of water can be drained into gallery (small diameter
tunnel) and disposed of by conventional large – scale pumps.
¬ Electro-osmosis. Used in low permeability soils (silts, silty clays, some peats) when no
other method is suitable. Direct current electricity is applied from anodes (steel rods) to
cathodes (well-points, i.e. small diameter filter wells)
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
ADVANTAGES
¬ Reduces the amount of sediment leaving the site
¬ Allows for a more in-depth site assessment – additional necessary erosion control
measures may be identified
DISADVANTAGES
¬ Must abide by multiple government laws and standards and obtain appropriate permits
¬ Requires frequent maintenance
¬ May be costly
Sumps and sump pumping:
A sump is merely a hole in the ground from which water is being pumped for the purpose of
removing water from the adjoining area (Fig 9.1). They are used with ditches leading to them in
large excavations. Up to maximum of 8m below pump installation level; for greater depths a
submersible pump is required. Shallow slopes may be required for unsupported excavations in
silts and fine sands. Gravels and coarse sands are more suitable. Fines may be easily removed
from ground and soils containing large percent of fines are not suitable. If there are existing
foundations in the vicinity pumping may cause settlement of these foundations. Subsidence of
adjacent ground and sloughing of the lower part of a slope (sloped pits) may occur. The sump
should be preferably lined with a filter material which has grain size gradations in compatible
with the filter rules. For prolonged pumping the sump should be prepared by first driving
sheeting around the sump area for the full depth of the sump and installing a cage inside the
sump made of wire mesh with internal strutting or a perforating pipe filling the filter material inthe space outside the cage
and at the bottom of the cage and withdrawing the sheeting. Two
simple
The essential feature of this method is a sump below the ground level of the excavation at one or
more corners or sides.. a small ditch is cut around the bottom of the excavation , falling towards
the sump. It is the most widely used and economical of all methods of ground water lowering.
This method is also more appropriate in situations where boulders or other massive obstructions
are met with the ground. There is also a disadvantage that the groundwater flows towards the
excavation with a high head or a steep slope and hence there is a risk of collapse of the sides.
Single Stage Well PointApplicability of Dewatering Systems
Settlement of Adjacent Structures
Δh = reduction of groundwater level
Cut off walls/trenches are used to prevent the damage.Design Input Parameters
Most important input parameters for selecting and designing a dewatering system:
• The height of the groundwater above the base of the excavation
• The permeability of the ground surrounding the excavation
Dupuit-Thiem Approximation for Single Well
Height of Free Discharge Surface
Ollos proposed a value of C = 0.5Influence Range
Sichardt (1928) C = 3000 for wells or 1500 to 2000 for single line well points
H, hw in meters and k in m/s
Forchheimer Equation for Multiwells
Forchheimer (1930)
Circular arrangement of wellsSpacing of Deep Wells
• Obtain an estimate of the total quantity of water to be pumped from Eq.1. The values of
H, y and R are determined by the type of aquifer, the required draw down and soil type. If
a is the radius of the equivalent circular area and X and Y are the dimensions of the
excavation,
• The number of wells is obtained by dividing the total yield with that of yield of a single
well.
Example: 1 A building has to be constructed on ground which has the following ground
conditions: Dimensions of the building=30mx20m and the depth of excavation is 10m (water
table is at ground level) Permeability of sand deposits below ground level = 10-3 m/s.
The depth of water level has to be decreased by 2m below excavation level. In order to construct
the building, dewatering has to be done by laying pumps at various junctions. Calculate the rate
of flow of water when one pump is laid and compare it with the discharge when the number of
pumps is increased. The site conditions of the building is shown in figure (1).
Solution:
From the given data we know:
Permeability of the sand, k= 10-3 m/s
Depth of water level, h= 12m
Depth of drawdown= 2mIn most of the cases, there is an empirical relationship to obtain an approximate value for
the line of influence, L(=R) and this is given by Sichardt:
The value of constant C in meters when k is in meters /second are:
C= 3000 for wells
=1500 to 2000 for single line wells (Mansur and Kaufmann)
Consider C=3000
Hence, L= 3000*2*(10-3)0.5 = 189.73m
The formula for discharge is given by Forchheimer is:
Here H= 12m, y=10m, L =189.73 and a= 7.8m
= 0.0433 m3/s
Expression for yield from a single well is given by
Substituting r = 0.1m, ho = 2m and k = 10-3 m/s, the yield for a single well is obtained as
0.01 m3/s. Hence, the number of wells can be taken as 5 to cater to the discharge of =
0.0433 m3/s.
If the number of pumps are increased to more than one, the formula given by
Forchheimer is:
Consider five pumps at different locations in and around the building at 10m respectively
in different directions. Now n=5, x1=10m, x2=10m, x3=10m, x4=10m and x5 =10mHence five number of pumps will be able
to cater to the discharge with adequate margin of
safety.
Dewatering techniques need considerable practical experience and many of the terms and
parameters in the formula have uncertainties and variability. Hence trials are useful to confirm if
the design is going to work in a satisfactory manner.
Dewatering by electro – osmosis
When an external electro motive force is applied across a soild liquid interface the
movable diffuse double layer is displaced tangentially with respect to the fixed layer . this is
electro osmosis. As the surface of fine grained soil particles causes negative charge, the positive
ions in solution are attracted towards the soil particles and concentrate near the surfaces. Upon
application of the electro motive force between two electrodes in a soil medium the positive ions
adjacent to the soil particles and the water molecules attached to the ions are attracted to the
cathode and are repelled by the anode. The free water in the interior of the void spaces is carried
along to the cathode by viscous flow. By making the cathode a well, water can be collected in the
well and then pumped out.INTRODUCTION
Electro osmotic consolidation means the consolidation of soft clays by the application of
electric current. It was studied and applied for the first time by Casagrande. It is inherent that
fine grained clay particles with large interfacial surface will consolidate and generate significant
settlement when loaded. The settlement creates problem in the foundation engineering. Electro
osmosis was originally developed as a means of dewatering fine grained soils for the
consolidation and strengthening of soft saturated clayey soils. Electro osmotic dewatering
essentially involves applying a small electric potential across the sediment layer. It is the process
where in positively charged ions move from anode to cathode. ie. Water moves from anode to
cathode where it can be collected and pumped out of soil Electro osmotic flow depends on soil
nature, water content, pH and on ionic type concentration in the pore water.
ELECTRO OSMOTIC CONSOLIDATION Due to the applied electric potential the
electrolysis of water occurs at the electrodes 2H2O -> O2 (g) + 4H+ +4e- oxidation (anode)
4H2O + 4e- -> 2H2 (g) + 4OH- reduction (cathode) The clay particles have a â€oeve charge.
These above charge produce an electro static surface property known as the double layer which
creates a net abundance of captions
Due to the applied electric potential the electrolysis of water occurs at the electrodes 2H2O ->
O2 (g) + 4H+ +4e- oxidation (anode) 4H2O + 4e- -> 2H2 (g) + 4OH- reduction (cathode) The
clay particles have a above charge. These above charge produce an electro static surface property
known as the double layer which creates a net abundance of captions.
in pore space. Electro osmotic transfer of water through clay is a result of diffuse double layer
captions in the clay pores being attracted to a negatively charged electrode or cathode. When
electrodes are placed across saturated clay mass and direct current is applied, water in the clay
pore space is transported towards cathode by electro osmosis. In addition frictional drag is
created by the motion of ions as they move through the clay pores helping to transport additional
water. The flow generated by the electric gradient is called electro osmotic flow.
EVALUATION OF ELECTRO OSMOTIC CONSOLIDATION Determination of
parameters Electrical operation systems for field application Materials Spacing between
electrodes Cost of electrodes and installation cost.DESIGN OF SUB-SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Sub-surface drainage is the removal of excess groundwater below the soil surface. It aims at
increasing the rate at which water will drain from the soil, and so lowering the water table, thus
increasing the depth of drier soil above the water table. Sub-surface drainage can be done by
open ditches or buried drains.
Sub-Surface Drainage Using Ditches
Ditches have lower initial cost than buried drains; there is ease of inspection and ditches are
applicable in some organic soils where drains are unsuitable. Ditches, however, reduce the land
available for cropping and require more maintenance that drains due to weed growth and erosion.
Sub-Surface Drains Using Buried
DrainsSub-Surface Drainage Using Buried DrainsBuried drains refer to any type of buried
conduits having open joints or perforations, which collect and convey drainage water.
They can be fabricated from clay, concrete, corrugated plastic tubes or any other suitable
material. The drains can be arranged in a parallel, herringbone, double main or random fashion.
Sub-Surface Drainage Designs The Major Considerations in Sub-surface Drainage Design
Include: Drainage Coefficient; Drain Depth and Spacing; Drain Diameters and Gradient;
Drainage Filters. Drainage Coefficient This is the rate of water removal used in drainage design
to obtain the desired protection of crops from excess surface or sub-surface water and can be
expressed in mm/day , m/day etc.
Drainage is different in Rain-Fed Areas and Irrigated Areas
Electrokinetic Stabilisation – Chief Mechanism
1. 2. From studies of clay mineralogy it is known that clays are made up of small particles
(<0.002 mm) with a very large surface area in comparison to their mass.
The properties of a clay are therefore greatly influenced by the surface forces. These
surfaces are negatively charged, primarily as a result of the isomorphism substitution of
aluminium or silicon atoms by lower valency atoms.3. This negative charge attracts (dipolar) water molecules, resulting in
the clay particles
being surrounded by layers of water, known as diffuse water layers (or diffuse double
layers). The concentration of cations available in the pore water and the surface charge of
the clay particle together control the thickness of this layer.
4. In addition, the pH of the system can influence the negative charge of the clay particles,
in some cases (e.g. kaolinite) significantly, and therefore directly influence the thickness
of the diffuse water layer.
5. The cations commonly found in the diffuse water layer and the pore water are variously
sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium and lithium, and in some cases higher order ions
are also present (Little, 1987).
6. When cations of a higher valency and/or a larger ionic radius, such as calcium, silicon or
aluminum, are introduced in significant concentrations, they saturate the solution and
become adsorbed at the clay surface in preference to those ions originally present.
7. The result of this cation exchange, due for example to the classic case of lime (and hence
calcium ion) addition, is a considerable reduction in the thickness of the diffused water
layer, as illustrated in Fig. 3.
8. This allows closer contact between the clay platelets, which promotes edge-to-face
attraction, or flocculation, and results in changes in the soil‟s workability, permeability,
plasticity and swell properties.
9. Alteration of the soil pH results in changes in the solubility of the clay minerals present.
10. The reaction products such as amorphous calcium aluminates hydrate and calcium
silicate hydrate gels, crystallizes with time to form a strong, brittle solid. This process is
termed stabilization.