MAT137 Study guide

April 2025

1 Integration Rules
1.1 Sine & Cosine:
Sine Reduction Formula
Let n ≥ 2. Then,
n−1
Z Z
n 1 n−1
sin (x)dx = sin (x) cos(x) + sinn−2 (x)dx
n n

Cosine Reduction Formula

Let n ≥ 2. Then,
n−1
Z Z
1
cosn (x)dx = cosn−1 (x) sin(x) + cosn−2 (x)dx
n n

Z
Another type of possible integral: sinm (x) cosn (x)dx

Case 1:
• If power of sin(x) is ODD, keep 1 factor of sin(x), and use the Pythagorean identity to change sin2 (x) =
1 − cos2 (x).
• If power of cos(x) is ODD, keep 1 factor of cos(x), and use the Pythagorean identity to change
cos2 (x) = 1 − sin2 (x).
• If both are odd, pick the one that will give a power of 2 (if possible).
Case 2:
• If both powers are EVEN, use half-angle formulas:
1 − cos(2x) 1 + cos(2x)
sin2 (x) = and cos2 (x) =
2 2
Then use u-substitution.

1.2 Tangent & Secant

Z
Format: tanm (x) secn (x)dx

• If power of tan(x) is ODD, break off 1 factor of tan(x) sec(x), and use tan2 (x) = sec2 (x) − 1.
• If power of sec(x) is EVEN, break off 1 factor of sec2 (x), and use sec2 (x) = tan2 (x) + 1. Then use
u-substitution.

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1.3 Cotangent & Cosecant
Z
Format: cotm (x) cscn (x)dx

• If power of cot(x) is ODD, break off 1 factor of cot(x) csc(x), and use cot2 (x) = csc2 (x) − 1.
• If power of sec(x) is EVEN, break off 1 factor of cot2 (x), and use csc2 (x) = cot2 (x) + 1.
d
(Remember dx csc(x) = − csc(x) cot(x)).
Then use u-substitution.

1.4 Sine & Cosine with Different Angles

NOTE: For integrals where sine and cosine have different angles use these identities:

Product-to-Sum Formulas
Let m, n ∈ R. Then,
1
sin(mx) sin(nx) = [cos((m − n)x) − cos((m + n)x)]
2
1
cos(mx) sin(nx) = [sin((m + n)x) − sin((m − n)x)]
2
1
sin(mx) cos(nx) = [sin((m + n)x) + sin((m − n)x)]
2

1.5 Trigonometric Substitution

√ √ √
This idea works for a2 + x2 , a2 − x2 , x2 − a2 . Then, use 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x or 1 − sin2 x = cos2 x. In
trigonometric substitution we only use tan θ, sin θ, and sec θ. Here are the main formulas.

Trigonometric Substitution
p x
a2 + x2 : tan θ = =⇒ x = a tan θ
a
p x
a2 − x2 : sin θ = =⇒ x = a sin θ
a
p x
x2 − a2 : sec θ = =⇒ x = a sec θ
a

1.6 Rational Functions

1. Every polynomial can be decomposed/factored into a product of linear and/or irreducible quadratic
factors, i.e., ax + b and/or ax2 + bx + c
R(x)
2. Every rational, Q(x) , where deg R(x) < deg Q(x) can be decomposed into partial fractions. For
deg R(x) ≥ deg Q(x) do long division first.
R(x) A1 A2 An
= + + ··· +
Q(x) a1 x + b1 a2 x + b2 an x + bn
Rule for repeated factors:
A1 A2 An
+ 2
+ ··· +
ax + b (ax + b) (ax + b)n
The same holds true for repeated irreducible quadratic factors.

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1.7 Fundemental Theorem of Calculus Questions
These questions come in the form of
Z b(x)
d
f (x)dx
dx a(x)

The solution is
f (b(x)) · b′ (x) − f (a(x)) · a′ (x)
Notice that if a(x) or b(x) are constant functions, then their derivatives become 0.

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2 Improper Integrals and Infinite Series
2.1 p-Series Test
p-Test for Infinite Limit
Let a > 0. Then, Z ∞
1
If p > 1, then dx converges.
a xp
Z ∞
1
If p ≤ 1, then dx diverges.
a xp

p-Test for Discontinuity

Let a > 0. Then, Z a
1
If p < 1, then dx converges.
0 xp
Z a
1
If p ≥ 1, then dx diverges.
0 xp

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3 Power Series
∞
X
an (x − c)n = a0 + a1 (x − c) + a2 (x − c)2
n=0

This is a power series in x, centered at c, a constant.

3.1 Convergence
1. At x = c only, R = 0, 0 ≤ x − c ≤ 0.
2. For all x, R = ∞, is −∞ ≤ x − c ≤ ∞.
3. For |x−c| < R, where |x−c| > R diverges. This means that the interval of convergence is (c−R, c+R).
We must also check the endpoints with a convergence test. Note that the domain of the series will
always be centered upon c.
P∞
The ratio test is useful for determining the convergence of a power series. For a given series n=1 an , let

an+1
L = lim .
n→∞ an

• If L < 1, the series is absolutely convergent.

• If L > 1, the series is divergent.

• If L = 1, the series may be divergent, conditionally convergent, or absolutely convergent – no conclusion

can be made.
After carrying out the ratio (or root) test, and we end up with something like

lim (n + 1)|x|,
n→∞

then we get two values:

1. limn→∞ (n + 1)|x| = ∞ if x ̸= 0, then by the ratio test, the power series is divergent.

2. limn→∞ (n + 1)|x| = 0 if x = 0, then by the ratio test, the power series is convergent.
First off, note that while this would be 0 · ∞, it would not be considered an indeterminate form since we are
not taking the limit of x – it is treated as a constant. Then, we can say R = 0 (radius of convergence) for
the given power series is 0.
an+1
• If we get L = limn→∞ an = 0, then it is convergent for all x. The interval of convergence would be
(−∞, ∞).

• If we get L = limn→∞ aan+1

n
= k|x| where k ∈ R, then we take k|x| < 1 to obtain an open interval of
convergence by the ratio test. Then, we check the endpoints of the open interval for convergence, to
determine which endpoints should be included in the interval of convergence.

3.2 Power Series Representation for Functions

The idea is to find a function such that taking a derivative or integral of it would yield the function that we
want to make a power series out of. An example such as ln(1 − x) would give the solution in the format of
a
a solution to a geometric series, as in 1−r . Let the solution equal its representation and integrate or take
the derivative of both sides. If integrating, put a +C on the side of the geometric series representation, and
solve for it at the end. Here is the complete example of finding the power series of ln(1 − x) valid on (−1, 1).

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 1. Find a function such that taking a derivative or integral, we get ln(x − 1):
Z
1
dx = − ln |x − 1| + C = − ln |1 − x| + C (this is only a negative sign off)
1−x

2. Notice geometric series:

1
1−x is a sum of a geometric series with a = 1,r = x

∞ ∞
1 X X
= 1 · xn−1 = xn−1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + . . .
1 − x n=1 n=1

3. Take integral on both sides:

Let u = 1 − x, and so du = −dx.
Z Z
1
dx = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · dx
1−x

x x3
=⇒ − ln(1 − x) = x + + + ··· + C
2 3
x x3
=⇒ ln(1 − x) = −x − − − ··· − C
2 3
4. Find +C:
First, let x = 0. Then, ln 1 = −C = 0
x2 x3 xn
P∞
Therefore, we can conclude that ln(x − 1) = −(x + 2 + 3 + ···) = − n=1 n on the interval
(−1, 1).

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4 Taylor and MacLaurin Series
Taylor Series:
∞
X f (n) (c) f ′′ (c)
f (x) = (x − c)n = f (c) + f ′ (c)(x − c) + (x − c)2
n=0
n! 2!
MacLaurin Series: This is a Taylor series with c = 0.
∞
X f (n) (0) n f ′′ (0) 2
f (x) = x = f (0) + f ′ (0)x + x
n=0
n! 2!

The nth derivative of a Taylor series:

f (n) (c) = n!an

A function with a power series representation will have a Taylor series representation. How-
ever, the converse is not necessarily true.

4.1 Finding a Taylor Series of a Function

1. Find many derivatives of f and look for a pattern.
2. Plug in x = c (center point of the Taylor series) into the derivative (useful for helping finding pattern
or writing explicit form).
3. Set up the series:
∞
X f (n) (c)
(x − c)n
n=0
n!

4. Find the interval of convergence. Here, the ratio test is useful.

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4.2 Common MacLaurin Series
Interval of
Function Maclaurin Series
Convergence

1 ∞
(−1, 1)
X
1−x xn
n=0

1 ∞
(−1, 1)
X
1+x (−1)n xn
n=0

∞
ex
X xn (−∞, ∞)
n=0
n!

∞
sin x
X x2n+1 (−∞, ∞)
(−1)n
n=0
(2n + 1)!

∞
cos x
X x2n (−∞, ∞)
(−1)n
n=0
(2n)!

∞
ln(1 + x)
X xn (−1, 1]
(−1)n+1
n=1
n

∞
ln(1 − x)
X xn (−1, 1)
−
n=1
n

∞
arctan x
X x2n+1 [−1, 1]
(−1)n
n=0
2n + 1

∞
arcsin x
X (2n)! [−1, 1]
x2n+1
n=0
4n (n!)2 (2n + 1)

ex − e−x X∞
x2n+1 (−∞, ∞)
sinh =
2 (2n + 1)!
n=0

ex + e−x X∞
x2n (−∞, ∞)
cosh x =
2 (2n)!
n=0

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4.3 Integration with Taylor/MacLaurin Series
We will find the following integral: Z
2
e−x dx

We can’t use any of our known integration techniques, so we’ll write the expression as a MacLaurin series
by using the already known MacLaurin series of ex .
∞ ∞ ∞
X xn 2 X (−x2 )n X (−1)n x2n
ex = =⇒ e−x = =
n=0
n! n=0
n! n=0
n!

Now, we can integrate the new expression, where we use the power rule for integration. Remember, we must
only integrate for the variable x as that is specified as the variable of integration. The n act as coefficients.

(−1)n x2n
Z Z
2
e−x dx = dx
n!
∞
X (−1)n x2n+1
= +C
n=0
n!(2n + 1)

4.4 Computing Limits with Taylor Polynomials

We will compute the following limit:

(sin x − x + 61 x3 )(ex − 1)
lim
x→0 x6
First, we will write the Taylor polynomials for sin x and ex centered around 0 to obtain reasonable approxi-
mations.

x2 x3 x4 x5
sin x ≈ sin(0) + x · sin′ (0) + · sin′′ (0) + · sin(3) (0) + · sin(4) (0) + · sin(5) (0)
2! 3! 4! 5!
x3 x5
=x− +
3! 5!
x3 x5
=x− +
6 120

d x x2 d2 x x3 d3 x
ex ≈ e0 + x ·
e + · e + · e
dx x=0 2! dx2 x=0 3! dx3 x=0
x2 x3
=1+x+ +
2! 3!
x2 x3
=1+x+ +
2 6

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We can now compute the limit:

(sin x − x + 16 x3 )(ex − 1) x3 x5 x3 x2 x3
     
1
lim ≈ lim x− + −x+ 1+x+ + −1
x→0 x6 x→0 6 120 6 2 6 x6
x5 x2 x3 1
 
= lim x+ +
x→0 120 2 6 x6
x2 x3
 
1
= lim x+ +
x→0 120x 2 6
2 3
x x x
= lim + +
x→0 120x 2 6
1 x2 x3
= lim + +
x→0 120 2 6
1
=
120

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