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Finite, Countable, and Uncountable Sets

• Finite Sets: A set X is called finite if there exists a bijection

f : {1, 2, . . . , n} → X for some n ∈ N.

Example: Finite Set

The set A = {a, b, c} is finite. A bijection is:

f (1) = a, f (2) = b, f (3) = c.

Hence, A has cardinality 3.

The empty set ∅ is also finite, with cardinality 0. The unique bijection is from ∅ to
itself.

• Countably Infinite Sets: A set X is called countably infinite if there exists a bijection

f : N → X.

Example: Even Natural Numbers

Let E = {2, 4, 6, 8, . . .}. Define f (n) = 2n. Then f : N → E is a bijection, so E is

countably infinite.

Example: The Set of Integers Z

We define a bijection f : N → Z by:
(
n
2
if n is even,
f (n) =
− n+1
2
if n is odd.

This gives the sequence:

f (0) = 0, f (1) = −1, f (2) = 1, f (3) = −2, f (4) = 2, ...

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N Z
0 0

1 −1

2 1

3 −2

4 2

5 −3

6 3

Bijection: N ↔ Z

• Countable Sets: A set is called countable if it is either finite or countably infinite.

• Uncountable Sets: A set is called uncountable if it is not countable.

Example: The Real Numbers R

Cantor’s diagonal argument (to be studied) shows that no bijection exists between
N and R ∩ [0, 1]. Thus, R is uncountable.

Lemma: Well-Ordering Property (WOP)

Every non-empty subset of N has a least element.

Infinite Subsets of N are Countably Infinite

Theorem
Every infinite subset of N is countably infinite.

Proof:

Let X ⊆ N be an infinite subset. We aim to construct a bijection f : N → X, which will

demonstrate that X is countably infinite.
Step 1: Constructing the sequence (xn ) from X
We define a sequence (xn ) of distinct elements of X as follows:

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• Since X ⊆ N and is non-empty, by the Well-Ordering Principle (WOP), it has a

least element. Let this be x1 . Define:
f (1) = x1 .
• Remove x1 from X to form a new set:
X1 = X \ {x1 }.
Since X is infinite, removing one element still leaves it infinite. So X1 is infinite and
non-empty.
• Again, by the WOP, X1 has a least element. Call it x2 . Define:
f (2) = x2 .
• Proceed inductively: having chosen x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , define:
Xn = X \ {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn },
which remains infinite. Let xn+1 be the least element of Xn , and define:
f (n + 1) = xn+1 .
This process defines a function f : N → X where
f (n) = xn for all n ∈ N,
and the sequence (xn ) lists the elements of X in strictly increasing order.
Step 2: Showing that f is a bijection
• Injectivity (one-to-one): Suppose n < m. Then, by construction, xn < xm , since each
xk is the smallest element not yet chosen. Thus, xn ̸= xm , so f (n) ̸= f (m). Hence, f is
injective.
• Surjectivity (onto): Every element of X will eventually be picked at some stage of
the construction. Since we remove each selected element and continue with the rest, no
element of X is left behind. Therefore, Im(f ) = X, so f is surjective.
Conclusion: The function f : N → X is a bijection. Hence, X is countably infinite.

1 x1

2 x2

3 x3

4 x4

.. ..
. .
N X⊆N

Diagram: Bijection from N to an infinite subset X ⊆ N

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Surjections from N and Countability

Theorem
A set X is countable if and only if there exists a surjective function f : N → X.

Proof:
Forward Direction: Suppose X is countable.

• If X is finite with n elements, say {x1 , ..., xn }, define:

(
xi for 1 ≤ i ≤ n
f (i) =
xn for i > n

Then f : N → X is surjective.

• If X is countably infinite, a bijection f : N → X exists, hence surjective.

Converse Direction: Suppose f : N → X is surjective.

• For each x ∈ X, the preimage f −1 ({x}) is non-empty.

• Define g : X → N as:
g(x) = min{n ∈ N | f (n) = x}.

• Then g is injective, so g(X) ⊆ N.

• If g(X) is finite, then X is finite.

• If g(X) is infinite, then g(X) is a countably infinite subset of N.

• Hence, there exists a bijection h : N → g(X), and the composition g −1 ◦ h : N → X is a

bijection.

Hence, X is countable.

Corollary
A non-empty set is countable if and only if its elements can be written as a sequence
{x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . }.

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g
min f −1 (y) = 1
1 f
x x 2
min f −1 (x) = 2
f
2
f y y 1
g
3
f
g
min f −1 (z) = 4
4 z z 4

..
.
g(x) = min{n ∈ N | f (n) = x}
g(x) = min{n ∈ N | f (n) = x}
Explicit map g : X → N showing minimum
Picking least n for each x ∈ X via g(x). preimages.

g : X → g(X)

h : N → g(X)
X N
g −1 : g(X) → X g(X) ⊆ N

g −1 ◦ h : N → X

Constructing bijection g −1 ◦ h from N → X.

Product and Union of Countable Sets

Theorem: Countability of Cartesian Product
If X and Y are countable, then their Cartesian product X × Y is countable.

Proof: Let
X = {x1 , x2 , . . . }, Y = {y1 , y2 , . . . }.
Enumerate pairs (xi , yj ) diagonally:

(x1 , y1 ), (x1 , y2 ), (x2 , y1 ), (x1 , y3 ), (x2 , y2 ), (x3 , y1 ), . . .

This covers all of X × Y , showing it is countable.

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(x1 , y1 ) (x2 , y1 ) (x3 , y1 ) (x4 , y1 ) (x5 , y1 )

(x1 , y2 ) (x2 , y2 ) (x3 , y2 ) (x4 , y2 ) (x5 , y2 )

(x1 , y3 ) (x2 , y3 ) (x3 , y3 ) (x4 , y3 ) (x5 , y3 )

(x1 , y4 ) (x2 , y4 ) (x3 , y4 ) (x4 , y4 ) (x5 , y4 )

(x1 , y5 ) (x2 , y5 ) (x3 , y5 ) (x4 , y5 ) (x5 , y5 )

Diagonal Enumeration of X × Y

Tip
Q∞
Infinite product n=1 {0, 1} = {0, 1}N is not countable. (Why? We shall explain late)

Theorem: Finite union of countable sets

Finite union of countable sets X1 , X2 , ..., Xn is countable.

Proof: Enumerate each Xi = {xi1 , xi2 , . . . }. Interleave:

x11 , x21 , ..., xn1 , x12 , x22 , . . .
This sequence enumerates all elements in ni=1 Xi .
S

X1 X2 Xn
x11 , x12 , x13 , . . . x21 , x22 , x23 , . . . xn1 , xn2 , xn3 , . . .

Sn
i=1 Xi
Interleaved Sequence:
x11 , x21 , ..., xn1 , x12 , x22 , ...

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Theorem
Countable union of countable sets A countable union of countable sets X1 , X2 , X3 , . . . is
countable.

Proof Idea: Enumerate each Xi = {xi1 , xi2 , . . . }. Use the diagonal method:

x11 , x21 , x12 , x31 , x22 , x13 , . . .

This ensures every element is counted, so the union is countable.

Tip
The diagonal counting method is a powerful tool for proving countability.

Countability via Surjective Maps

Theorem
Surjective image of a countable set is countable If X is countable and f : X → Y is
surjective, then Y is countable.

Proof: Since X is countable, there exists a surjection

g : N → X.

Composing f with g gives a surjection

f ◦ g : N → Y.

Hence, Y is countable.

Integers Z are countable (Looking through this theorem)

Here,
g : N → N (identity or enumeration map),
and 
n, if n is even,
2
f : N → Z, f (n) =
− n−1 , if n is odd.
2

The map f is surjective onto Z. Since N is countable and f is surjective, Z is countable.

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Rational numbers Q are countable

Here,
g :N→N×N
is the diagonal enumeration map of pairs (m, n), and
m
f : N × N → Q+ , f (m, n) = ,
n
which is surjective onto positive rationals. Extending f to include negatives and zero, we
get a surjection onto Q.
Thus, since N is countable and f ◦ g : N → Q is surjective, Q is countable.

Uncountable Sets
Theorem
The set {0, 1}N , i.e., the set of all infinite binary sequences, is uncountable.

Proof: (Cantor’s Diagonal Argument)

Assume, for contradiction, that {0, 1}N is countable. Then there exists a surjective map

f : N → {0, 1}N ,

which lists all infinite binary sequences as

x1 = (x11 , x12 , x13 , . . . ), x2 = (x21 , x22 , x23 , . . . ), ...

Now, construct a new sequence y = (y1 , y2 , y3 , . . . ) such that it differs from the diagonal

elements of the list: (

0 if xnn = 1,
yn =
1 if xnn = 0.
This means y differs from x1 in the 1st position, from x2 in the 2nd position, and so on.
Therefore, y ̸= xn for all n, and hence y is not in the list.
This contradicts our assumption that the list contains all binary sequences. Hence, {0, 1}N is
uncountable.

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x11 x12 x13 x14 ···

x21 x22 x23 x24 ···

Flip each red entry to
form a new sequence
⇒ y = (y1 , y2 , . . . ) that dif-
x31 x32 x33 x34 ···
fers from each row.

x41 x42 x43 x44 ···

.. .. .. .. ..
. . . . .

The red diagonal entries xnn are flipped to create a new sequence y ∈
/ {xn }.

Key Idea
Cantor’s diagonal argument shows that any attempted list of all infinite binary sequences
misses at least one sequence — the one constructed by flipping the diagonal entries. Thus,
the set is not countable.

Theorem
The set R is uncountable.

Proof Sketch:

Decimal representations of rationals

Every irrational number in [0, 1] has a unique non-terminating decimal representation.

However, every rational number in [0, 1] has exactly two decimal representations: one
terminating and one repeating.
For example,
1
= 0.2000 . . . = 0.1999 . . .
5

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Explanation
These are equal because
9 9 1
0.1999 . . . = 0.1 + + + ··· = .
100 1000 5
This equality arises since the repeating decimal is the sum of a geometric series:
∞  k−1
X 1 9 1
0.1999 . . . = · = .
k=1
10 10 5

To avoid ambiguity in Cantor’s diagonalization argument, we exclude terminating deci-

mals by choosing only non-terminating decimal representations.

Assume for contradiction that all real numbers in [0, 1] can be listed as an infinite sequence of
decimal expansions:

x1 = 0.x11 x12 x13 . . . , x2 = 0.x21 x22 x23 . . . , ...

Construct a new number y = 0.y1 y2 y3 . . . , where

(
̸ 2,
2, if xnn =
yn =
3, if xnn = 2,

By construction, y differs from each xn at the n-th decimal place, hence y ∈ / {xn }. This
contradicts the assumption that all reals in [0, 1] were listed. Therefore, R is uncountable.

Tip
In Cantor’s diagonal argument, restricting to non-terminating decimal expansions avoids
duplicates like 0.5 = 0.4999 . . ., ensuring a unique construction of the new number y.

0 1 4 7

3 1 5 8

9 2 2 4 ⇒ Construct y with digits

4 1 0 3

.. .. .. ..
. . . .

y = 0.2232 . . .

Diagonal digits (in red) are changed using the rule: if digit ̸= 2, replace with 2; if digit = 2, replace
with 3. This ensures y differs from each xn at the n-th decimal place.

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Corollary

The set of irrational numbers, i.e., R \ Q, is uncountable.

Reason: Suppose, for contradiction, that R\Q is countable. Then R = (R\Q)∪Q would
be a union of two countable sets, hence countable. This contradicts the uncountability
of R. Therefore, R \ Q is uncountable.

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Appendix: Equipotency of Uncountable Sets

Equipotency of Two Closed Intervals

Let a, b ∈ R with a < b. Then the closed intervals [0, 1] and [a, b] are equipotent.
Proof: Define the function:

f : [0, 1] → [a, b], f (x) = (b − a)x + a.

• f is linear ⇒ continuous and differentiable.

• Since b − a > 0, f is strictly increasing ⇒ injective.

• f (0) = a, f (1) = b ⇒ Im(f ) = [a, b] ⇒ surjective.

• Hence, f is a bijection.

Conclusion: [0, 1] ∼ [a, b].

Equipotency of Two Open Intervals

For any a, b ∈ R with a < b, the open intervals (0, 1) and (a, b) are equipotent.
Proof: Define:
f : (0, 1) → (a, b), f (x) = (b − a)x + a.

• f is strictly increasing ⇒ injective.

• limx→0+ f (x) = a, limx→1− f (x) = b ⇒ Im(f ) = (a, b) ⇒ surjective.

• Hence, f is a bijection.

Conclusion: (0, 1) ∼ (a, b).

Equipotency of Closed Interval and Open Interval

The intervals [0, 1] and (0, 1) are equipotent.

Proof (Sketch): The difference [0, 1] \ (0, 1) = {0, 1} is finite. Adding or removing a
countable set from an uncountable set does not affect its cardinality.
Define a bijection: 1

 2
, if x = 0,
1,

if x = 1,
f (x) = 3 1


 n+3
, if x = n1 , n ∈ N,

x, otherwise.

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• The countable set {0, 1, 1/n : n ∈ N} is mapped injectively into (0, 1).

• The uncountably many other points are fixed.

• f is bijective.

Conclusion: [0, 1] ∼ (0, 1).

Equipotency of Closed Interval and Half-Open Interval

The intervals [0, 1] and [0, 1) are equipotent.

Proof (Sketch): Define a bijection:
(
1
n+1 , if x = 21n , n ∈ N,
f (x) = 2
x, otherwise.

• The countable set 1


2n
: n ∈ N is injectively moved to new values in [0, 1).

• All other (uncountably many) points remain unchanged.

Conclusion: [0, 1] ∼ [0, 1).

Equipotency of Open Interval and Half-Open Interval

The intervals (0, 1) and [0, 1) are equipotent.

Proof: From earlier results:

[0, 1] ∼ (0, 1), [0, 1] ∼ [0, 1) ⇒ (0, 1) ∼ [0, 1).

Alternatively, construct a bijection by shifting countable subsets as in previous proofs.

Equipotency of Open Interval and the Real Line

The interval (0, 1) and R are equipotent.

Proof: Define:  π
f : (0, 1) → R, f (x) = tan πx − .
2
• limx→0+ f (x) = −∞, limx→1− f (x) = ∞.

• f is continuous and strictly increasing ⇒ bijection onto R.

Conclusion: (0, 1) ∼ R.

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Equipotency of Closed Interval and the Real Line

The intervals [0, 1] and R are equipotent.

Proof: From previous results:

[0, 1] ∼ (0, 1), (0, 1) ∼ R ⇒ [0, 1] ∼ R.

Equipotency of Half-Infinite Intervals

The intervals [1, ∞) and (1, ∞) are equipotent.

Proof (Sketch): The difference is the single point 1, which is countable.
Define: (
x + 1, if x ∈ N,
f (x) =
x, otherwise.

• N ⊂ [1, ∞) is countable and shifted inside (1, ∞).

• All other points remain unchanged.

Conclusion: [1, ∞) ∼ (1, ∞).

Equipotency of Real Line Notations

The set R and the interval (−∞, ∞) are equipotent.

Proof: These are different notations for the same set R, so trivially:

R ∼ (−∞, ∞).

Prerequisite

Schröder–Bernstein Theorem
Let A and B be sets. If there exist injective functions f : A → B and g : B → A,
then there exists a bijection h : A → B. That is, A ∼ B.

Proof:
1. Setup: We have injective functions

f : A → B, g : B → A.

Our goal is to build a bijection h : A → B using f and g.

2. Define a special subset A0 of A: Let

A0 = A \ g(B),

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which contains elements of A that are not in the image of g. Intuitively, these elements
cannot be reached by applying g to any element of B.
3. Build a sequence of subsets of A: Define recursively for n ≥ 0:
An+1 = g(f (An )),
which means: take An , map it into B via f , then map back to A via g.
This generates the chain of subsets
A0 , A1 = g(f (A0 )), A2 = g(f (A1 )), ...

4. Define the union of these subsets:

∞
[
C= An ,
n=0

which consists of all elements reachable from A0 through repeated applications of f and
g.
5. Define the function h : A → B: Set
(
f (a), if a ∈ C,
h(a) = −1
g (a), if a ∈ A \ C.

Note: - g −1 (a) is well-defined because A \ C ⊆ g(B). - f (a) is defined for all a ∈ A.

6. Show h is injective:
• For a1 , a2 ∈ C, if h(a1 ) = h(a2 ), then f (a1 ) = f (a2 ). Since f is injective, a1 = a2 .
• For a1 , a2 ∈ A \ C, if h(a1 ) = h(a2 ), then g −1 (a1 ) = g −1 (a2 ). Since g is injective,
g −1 is injective on its image, so a1 = a2 .
• For a1 ∈ C and a2 ∈ A \ C, h(a1 ) = f (a1 ) ∈ f (C) and h(a2 ) = g −1 (a2 ) ∈ B \ f (C),
so h(a1 ) ̸= h(a2 ).
Thus, h is injective.
7. Show h is surjective:
For any b ∈ B:
• If b ∈ f (C), then there exists a ∈ C such that f (a) = b, so h(a) = b.
• Otherwise, b ∈
/ f (C), which implies g(b) ∈ A \ C.
Then
h(g(b)) = g −1 (g(b)) = b.
Therefore, h is surjective.
Conclusion: Since h is injective and surjective, h is a bijection. Hence,
A ∼ B.

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f: A→B
a0 ∈ A0 ⊂ C a0

b0

a1 ∈ A1 a1

b1

dotted: g : B → A
a2 ∈ A2 a2

b2

a3 ∈ A3 a3

b3

g −1 : A → B
a4 ∈ A \ C a4

b4

a5 ∈ A \ C a5

b5

Equipotency of Real Numbers and n-Dimensional Euclidean Space

For every n ∈ N, R and Rn are equipotent.
Proof:
We first note that R ∼ (0, 1) and Rn ∼ (0, 1)n , since both the real line and Euclidean
spaces are bijective with bounded open intervals.
To prove (0, 1) ∼ (0, 1)n , we construct injections in both directions:
• Inject (0, 1)n → (0, 1): Represent each real number xi ∈ (0, 1) in its non-terminating
decimal expansion:
xi = 0.di1 di2 di3 . . .
Define:
f (x1 , . . . , xn ) = 0.d11 d21 . . . dn1 d12 d22 . . . dn2 d13 . . .
(Interleave the digits across coordinates.) This is an injective map from (0, 1)n →
(0, 1).
• Inject (0, 1) → (0, 1)n : Given a real number x = 0.d1 d2 d3 . . . ∈ (0, 1), define:
g(x) = (x1 , . . . , xn ), where xi = 0.di di+n di+2n . . .
That is, assign every n-th digit to the i-th coordinate. This defines an injection
g : (0, 1) → (0, 1)n .

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These injections are well-defined if we restrict to non-terminating decimal expansions.

By the Schröder–Bernstein Theorem, since there are injections both ways, there exists a
bijection:
(0, 1) ∼ (0, 1)n
Hence:
R ∼ Rn

Summary of Equipotency Results

Conclusion: All uncountable intervals in R—whether open, closed, half-open, bounded,
or unbounded—have the same cardinality as R. Moreover, for any n ∈ N, the space Rn
has the same cardinality as R.
This demonstrates the counterintuitive yet foundational result of set theory: vastly dif-
ferent uncountable sets can have the same size.

Cardinality and Continuum Hypothesis

Cardinalities of Key Sets

• The cardinality of the set of natural numbers N (and any countable set like Q) is
denoted by the first infinite cardinal ℵ0 (aleph-null).

• The cardinality of the continuum, i.e., the set of real numbers R, is denoted by c
(the cardinality of the continuum).

Continuum Hypothesis (CH)

The Continuum Hypothesis states that there is no set whose cardinality lies strictly
between ℵ0 and c. In other words,
c = ℵ1 ,
where ℵ1 is the smallest uncountable cardinal, i.e., the next cardinal after ℵ0 .

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Cardinality Example Sets Description

ℵ0 (Countably infinite) N, Z, Q, finite subsets of N Sets that can be listed in a sequence,
i.e., put in bijection with N. Infinite
but enumerable.
2ℵ0 = c (Continuum) R, Qc = R \ Q, {0, 1}N , intervals Uncountable sets, strictly larger
like [1, 4], (3, 7), (4, 5], power set than countable sets, no enumeration
P(N) possible. Many intervals share this
cardinality.

Table 1: Cardinality layers with examples

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Problem Sheet with Solutions

Problem 1
Show that the set of all algebraic numbers is countable.

Solution:
Algebraic numbers are roots of polynomials with integer coefficients. There are countably
many such polynomials because each polynomial corresponds to a finite sequence of integers,
and the set of all finite integer sequences is countable. Each polynomial has finitely many roots.
Thus, the set of algebraic numbers is a countable union of finite sets, which is countable.

Problem 2
Prove that the set Q × Q is countable.

Solution:
Since Q is countable, and the Cartesian product of two countable sets is countable, Q × Q is
countable. One way to see this is to enumerate pairs (q1 , q2 ) diagonally, similar to enumerating
N × N.

Problem 3
Show that any infinite subset of a countable set is countable.

Solution:
Let S be a countable set and T ⊆ S be infinite. Since S can be enumerated as s1 , s2 , s3 , . . .,
list elements of T in the order they appear in this enumeration. This gives a sequence enumer-
ating T , proving T is countable.

Problem 4
Is the set of all finite binary strings countable? Justify.

Solution:
Yes. For each fixed length n, there are 2n binary strings, which is finite. The set of all finite
binary strings is a countable union (over n ∈ N) of finite sets, which is countable.

Problem 5
Prove that the set of functions f : N → {0, 1} is uncountable.

Solution:
Each function corresponds to an infinite binary sequence. By Cantor’s diagonal argument,
no list can contain all such sequences without missing one, proving this set is uncountable.

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Problem 6
Prove or disprove: The union of countably many countable sets is countable.

Solution:
True. Let {An }∞
n=1 be countable sets. Each An can be enumerated as an,1 , an,2 , . . .. Enumer-
ate elements diagonally: a1,1 , a1,2 , a2,1 , a1,3 , a2,2 , a3,1 , . . ., listing all elements. This enumeration
shows the union is countable.

Problem 7
Prove that the interval (0, 1) ⊂ R is uncountable.

Solution:
Using Cantor’s diagonalization on the decimal expansions of numbers in (0, 1), assume a
countable enumeration and construct a number differing in the n-th decimal place from the n-
th enumerated number. This new number is not in the list, contradicting countability. Hence
(0, 1) is uncountable.

Problem 8
Let A = {(m, n) ∈ N × N : m < n}. Show that A is countable.

Solution:
Since N × N is countable, any subset A ⊆ N × N is at most countable. More specifically, list
pairs (m, n) by increasing m + n and select those with m < n. This produces an enumeration
of A, proving it is countable.

Problem 9
Prove that the set of all rational numbers in the interval [0, 1] is countable.

Solution:
Since Q is countable, any subset of Q, including the rationals in [0, 1], is countable. This
follows from the fact that countability is preserved under taking subsets.

Problem 10
Show that the set of all polynomials with rational coefficients is countable.

Solution:
Each polynomial can be identified by a finite sequence of rational coefficients. Since Q is
countable and finite sequences over a countable set form a countable union of finite products, the
set of all such sequences is countable. Thus, the set of all polynomials with rational coefficients
is countable.

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