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 p.i

INSIGHT

Research on insight problem solving examines how new ideas are generated
to solve problems that initially resist the application of prior knowledge or
analogue solutions. In the laboratory, insight problems are designed to create
an impasse; overcoming the impasse is sometimes accompanied by a
distinctive phenomenological experience, the so-called Aha! moment. Insight:
On the Origins of New Ideas presents research that captures these episodes of
insight under laboratory conditions and informs models that account for
their emergence.
Descriptions and analyses of episodes of discovery both in and out of the
laboratory are included to provide a general overview of insight. Featuring
contributions from leading researchers, the volume debates the relative
importance of intelligence and working memory, the development of an
alternative interpretation of the problem based on deliberate analyses and
heuristics, and unconscious inferences in the emergence of insight. These
discussions generate new testable hypotheses to shed light on the cognitive
processes underpinning insight, along with concrete methodological
recommendations that, together, map a productive program of future
research.
This book will be of interest to students and researchers of thinking and
reasoning – specifically those interested in insight and creative problem
solving.

Frédéric Vallée-Tourangeau is Professor of Psychology at Kingston

University, UK.
 p.ii

Current Issues in Thinking and Reasoning

Series Editor: Linden Ball

Current Issues in Thinking and Reasoning is a series of edited books that will
reflect the state of the art in areas of current and emerging interest in the
psychological study of thinking processes.
Each volume will be tightly focused on a particular topic and will consist
of between seven and ten chapters contributed by international experts. The
editors of individual volumes will be leading figures in their areas and will
provide an introductory overview.
Example topics include thinking and working memory, visual imagery in
problem solving, evolutionary approaches to thinking, cognitive processes in
planning, creative thinking, decision-making processes, pathologies of
thinking, individual differences, neuropsychological approaches and
applications of thinking research.

Individual Differences in Judgement and Decision Making

Edited by Maggie E.Toplak and Joshua Weller

Moral Inferences
Edited by Jean-François Bonnefon and Bastien Trémolière

Dual Process Theory 2.0

Edited by Wim De Neys

The New Reflectionism in Cognitive Psychology

Edited by Gordon Pennycook
Insight and Creativity in Problem Solving
Edited by Kenneth J. Gilhooly, Linden J. Ball and Laura Macchi
 p.iii

INSIGHT
On the Origins of New Ideas

Edited by Frédéric Vallée-Tourangeau

 p.iv

First published 2018

by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2018 selection and editorial matter, Frédéric Vallée-Tourangeau; individual chapters, the
contributors

The right of the editor to be identified as the author of the editorial material, and of the
authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78
of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any
form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,

and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

A catalog record for this book has been requested

ISBN: 978-1-138-28806-5 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-28808-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-26811-8 (ebk)

Typeset in Bembo
by Swales & Willis Ltd, Exeter, Devon, UK
 p.v

CONTENTS

Notes on contributors

Introduction
Frédéric Vallée-Tourangeau

1 The dialectic between routine and creative cognition

Stellan Ohlsson

2 Whose insight is it anyway?

Edward M. Bowden and Kristin Grunewald

3 Magic tricks, sudden restructuring, and the Aha! experience: a new

model of nonmonotonic problem solving
Amory H. Danek

4 When does higher working memory capacity help or hinder insight

problem solving?
Marci S. DeCaro

5 Working memory in insight problem solving

Ken Gilhooly and Margaret E.Webb

6 The relationship of insight problem solving to analytical thinking:

evidence from psychometric studies
 Adam Chuderski and Jan Jastrzębski
p.vi

7 Breaking past the surface: remote analogical transfer as creative insight

Tim George and Jennifer Wiley

8 An ecological perspective on insight problem solving

Sune Vork Steffensen and Frédéric Vallée-Tourangeau

9 Insight, problem solving, and creativity: an integration of findings

Robert W.Weisberg

Index
 p.vii

CONTRIBUTORS

Edward M. Bowden is Assistant Professor in the Department of

Psychology at the University of Wisconsin-Parkside. His research focuses on
how variations in working memory and attention are related to insight and
analytic problem solving. He is currently studying ways of influencing
whether problems are solved by insight or analytic approaches.

Adam Chuderski is Associate Professor at the Cognitive Science

Department, Institute of Philosophy, Jagiellonian University in Krakow. His
research covers intelligence, reasoning, problem solving, working memory,
self-control, and neurophysiology of complex cognition, as well as
computational modeling.

Amory H. Danek studied psychology in Vienna and at Ludwig-

Maximilians-Universität in Munich (LMU), and graduated with a Masters in
neuro-cognitive psychology, as well as the diploma (Dipl.-Psych.). She spent
research time at the National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD, as
well as in Trieste, Italy (Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati, or
SISSA), and received a PhD in systemic neurosciences from LMU. Her main
research interest is human problem solving (insight and tower transformation
tasks). After spending postdoctoral time at University of Illinois at Chicago,
she is now at Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg, Germany, working on
her thesis.
Marci S. DeCaro is Associate Professor of Psychological and Brain Sciences
at the University of Louisville. Her research examines factors that promote
learning and problem solving, including individual differences and
educational instruction.

Tim George is a doctoral candidate in cognitive psychology at the

University of Illinois at Chicago. His research explores the mechanisms that
support creative idea generation, analogical problem solving, and metaphor
comprehension, particularly the role of inhibitory processes in overcoming
familiar or easily accessible information in creative-thinking contexts.
p.viii

Ken Gilhooly is Emeritus Professor of Psychology at University of

Hertfordshire and Research Professor in the Department of Clinical Sciences
at Brunel University London. He has been active in research on thinking,
problem solving, and working memory over a number of years, and has
published extensively in these areas with the aid of grants from UK Research
Councils, EU sources, and major charities. Recently, he has been focusing on
insight problem solving, creative thinking, and incubation effects – all of
which, one day, he hopes to explain!

Kristin Grunewald is a PhD candidate in the Department of Psychology–

Brain, Behavior and Cognition program at Northwestern University. Her
research focuses on the relationships between insight problem solving, sleep,
and memory. More specifically, her work examines how sleep impacts
memory and facilitates problem solving, as well as how the memory of a
problem and its solution persist over time.

Jan Jastrzębski is a PhD candidate at the Psychology Program in

Jagiellonian University. He is interested in cognitive psychology – specifically
in research on intelligence and rationality. His thesis addresses the relationship
between intelligence, working memory, and perceptual discrimination ability.
Stellan Ohlsson was born in Sweden and received his PhD in 1980 from
the University of Stockholm. From 1985 to 1996, he worked as a senior
scientist at the Learning Research and Development Center (LRDC) at the
University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Since 1996, he has been Professor of
Psychology and Computer Science at the University of Illinois at Chicago.
His work has addressed issues of creativity, skill acquisition, and conceptual
change. In 2011, he summarized his research in Deep Learning: How the Mind
Overrides Experience (Cambridge University Press).

Frédéric Vallée-Tourangeau received his PhD from McGill University and

is currently Professor of Psychology at Kingston University. His research has
focused on causal and Bayesian reasoning, problem solving, and creativity.

Sune Vork Steffensen is Professor at the University of Southern Denmark

and director of the Centre for Human Interactivity (CHI). He is a leading
proponent for a distributed view on language, and his field of research is the
complex ecologies of human interaction in real-life settings. He received his
PhD from Aarhus University in 2007 and is currently involved in projects on
cognitive events in psychotherapy, in psychology labs, and in private
corporations. Across these settings, he is developing a qualitative method of
cognitive event analysis.
p.ix

Margaret E. Webb is an early-career researcher at the University of

Melbourne, Australia, locked in an earnest search for eventual insight into
insight itself. Particularly, her investigations center on individual differences in
the neuro-chemical and cognitive underpinnings of this elusive
phenomenon.

Robert W. Weisberg is Professor of Psychology at Temple University. His

research focuses on the cognitive processes underlying creative thinking. He
has published numerous books and papers presenting case studies of creative
thinking at the highest levels, as well as experimental investigations of
creative thinking in the laboratory, concentrating on insight in problem
solving.

Jennifer Wiley is Professor of Psychology at the University of Illinois at

Chicago. Her research on problem solving has explored the processes
underlying insight, and the costs and benefits of expertise, collaboration, and
individual differences, including bilingualism and working memory capacity,
with respect to overcoming fixation and attaining creative solutions.
 p.1

INTRODUCTION
Frédéric Vallée-Tourangeau

Some problems are solved on the basis of the iterative application of rules
and operators that gradually transform the initial presentation of the problem
into a solution. Mental arithmetic problems are good examples of so-called
transformation or analytic problems. Once a solution is achieved, a reasoner
is unlikely to experience a sense of euphoric discovery, although perhaps
they will feel relief and satisfaction at a job well done. Other problems
present themselves in a manner that, at first encounter, resists such a
monotonic iterative strategy. Perhaps this is because the reasoner does not
know which operators to use or has forgotten the rules that can be applied
to yield a solution. More interesting are cases in which the reasoner labors a
solution predicated on an incorrect or misguided interpretation of the
problem. The possibility of solving the problem can be realized only once the
reasoner abandons this interpretation and discovers a new one whereby
hitherto unnoticed, seemingly incongruent or irrelevant problem elements
cohere to identify a relatively clear path towards the solution. It is this aspect
of discovery, of the origin of new ideas, which is the focus of the
experimental research reviewed and discussed in this monograph.
To understand and explain these episodes of discovery, which may be
accompanied by a distinct phenomenological experience, is clearly an
important mission for cognitive psychology. Contributors to this volume
debate the degree to which episodes of discovery reflect a gradual
accumulation of knowledge through deliberate, effortful analysis of the
problem elements that culminates in a solution, or whether so-called
nonroutine cognitive processes, some or most operating unconsciously, are
implicated in achieving a breakthrough. A recurring theme in the present
monograph is that a binary taxonomy of insight and noninsight problems
cannot determine a priori whether a problem solution will be achieved
through insight – with its concomitant phenomenology – or through an
incremental and deliberate analysis of the problem. Some of the
recommendations offered here enjoin researchers to employ certain kinds of
problems, such as remote associates or magic tricks, problems argued to offer
a more informative window onto insight. These recommendations are
predicated on the need to present participants with larger sets of problems,
only some of which have solutions that are self-reported as involving insight,
thereby enabling within-participant comparative analyses of the processes and
neural correlates of insight versus noninsight problem solving. Insight is thus
more sharply operationalized. These types of problem generally involve no
interaction with a physical model of the problem; participants listen to or
watch a presentation of the problem – they are sometimes immobilized for
neuroscience experiments – and a problem solution, experienced with or
without insight, is captured using a procedure that lasts seconds. In contrast,
case studies of innovation and discovery track much longer temporal
trajectories and involve a degree of interaction with artifacts and people that
is rich and complex. The creative agent produces interim proto-solutions that
don’t quite work (or aren’t quite satisfactory): preliminary sketches and
models that act as ratchet boundary objects that have a transformative impact
on both the agent and the creative arc.
p.2
The psychometric research program has made substantial progress in the
last decade, and the state of the art is showcased in this monograph. The aim
is to determine the degree to which variance in insight and analytic
problem-solving performance can be explained by variance in storage
capacity, executive function skills, and intelligence – statistical evidence that
then offers a platform to better understand the processes driving insight
problem solving at different stages and for different types of problem. The
psychology of insight problem solving has undoubtedly benefited from the
methodological scrutiny of past and current psychometric efforts; as a result,
researchers are in a better position to reflect critically on issues related to
measurement reliability (the number and nature of problems over which a
composite performance score is calculated), the nature and size of participant
sample, and the kinds of analyses (such as the latent variable approach) that
can or should be conducted on the performance data. Challenges remain as
we scale up from laboratory work to problem solving in the sciences and the
arts: An agent may toil for days or months (or even years) on an engineering
problem or a work of art before experiencing a breakthrough. This is not to
say that scientists, scholars, or artists can’t be profiled along psychometric
dimensions, but a creative arc can be complex, interactive, and contingent.
The monograph opens with a chapter from Stellan Ohlsson. He offers a
contrast between routine and creative cognition. The former corresponds to
the remarkable complexity and plasticity of cognitive processes that underpin
a person’s everyday information-processing and behavior-selection challenges
in an effortless and automated manner. Ohlsson argues that creative
cognition cannot emerge from these processes; rather, a person is creative
when the inferences they draw don’t simply mirror past experiences, but
reflect connections among hitherto isolated elements of semantic memory.
These inferences are noninductive, since they are not driven by experience.
Ohlsson argues that to anchor a productive research program to explore
creative cognition, it is important to frame routine cognition in terms of
sound theoretical parameters: A solid theory of routine cognition helps to
sharpen the contrast with nonroutine cognition and guides research efforts
on creativity. Ohlsson provides a clear outline of his semantic processing
hypothesis, as well as a specification of the semantic relevance of new
propositional elements that are integrated and which transform an initial
problem representation. The chapter makes a particularly interesting
contribution when Ohlsson outlines the triggering condition of creative
cognition. He argues that semantic processing need not be triggered simply
by a negative event, such as experiencing an impasse, but also by detecting a
second-order change in the environment – changes that don’t simply
correspond to expected or cyclical variance, but which signal volatility:
“[V]olatility detection bridges the gap between each successive problem-
solving effort and the cognitive history of the problem solver.” This new
proposal has important methodological implications for the conduct of
problem-solving research under laboratory conditions.
 p.3
Edward Bowden and Kristin Grunewald argue that a science of insight
should keep an unwavering focus on the phenomenology of insight. They
warn us that research can’t proceed fruitfully from a priori definition of what
constitutes an insight problem, with the hope that solutions to these
problems offer a diagnostic window onto the processes implicated in insight.
Taxonomic considerations don’t dictate the experience of insight: Solvers’
self-reports should be collected, and solvers’ subjective experience offers the
crucial data from which to develop a science of insight problem solving. A
nonexhaustive trawl through the literature suggests that researchers don’t
often collect subjective reports. Bowden and Grunewald acknowledge the
reasons why there is resistance to collecting such evidence. However, their
useful contrast between process and outcome reports helps us to appreciate
why outcome reports should generally be trusted as conveying a veridical
account of a change in knowledge:

If insight involves an abrupt change from a state of not knowing how to solve the
problem to a state of knowing [ . . . ], with no conscious awareness of what caused the
change, the person experiencing the insight can still be expected to be able to report
that the change occurred.

The authors argue that conflicting findings concerning the role of hints and
the importance of working memory for insight problem solving might be
resolved if researchers were systematically to collect solvers’ reports of their
experiences. In turn, the neuroscience of insight has productively relied on
subjective reports to identify the neural signature of insight phenomenology.
Bowden and Grunewald close their chapter with helpful methodological
reflections on the challenges involved in measuring the insight experience.
Amory Danek also makes a strong case that a science of insight should be
built from the phenomenology of the Aha! experience: It is the most salient
correlate of insight, and, as such, it should be used as a key marker of
insightful solution. Self-reports are clearly important, and the author offers a
useful comparative analysis of different introspection instructions that help
participants to identify and report the nature of a successful problem-solving
experience. From this analysis, she derives concrete recommendations for
capturing informative subjective reports that can be used to distinguish
insight from noninsight solutions. For Danek, insight is a “complex nonlinear
transition process” with affective and cognitive features. She offers a model of
the ways in which problem solving can unfold; the model builds on
representational change theory and is explicitly contrasted with Fleck and
Weisberg’s four-stage model. A detailed exploration of the model and the
underlying processes requires data obtained from judiciously selected insight
problems. Danek plausibly argues that magic offers a fertile domain for such
a selection. For one thing, magic illusions are predicated on false problem
representations; seeing through the illusion necessitates a representation
change. Participants can be shown large sets of problems – that is, tricks –
which facilitate the comparison across problems solved with or without
insight. Magic tricks pique curiosity and trigger problem-solving efforts;
their novelty may also enhance the rate of Aha! experiences. The magic
paradigm can also help researchers to develop productive programs of
research that address key elements of insight problem solving, such as
constraint relaxation, attentional focus, and functional fixedness.
p.4
Marci DeCaro considers the role of working memory in general, and
executive attention in particular, in insight problem solving. Her review is
particularly interesting and original because she reflects on the contribution
of working memory during three phases of problem solving – namely, in
developing an initial interpretation of the problem (which DeCaro equates
to a mental representation of the problem), in evaluating different candidate
solutions in a solution phase, and during a restructuring phase that precedes
the discovery of the correct solution. In this last phase, associative processes
might be more implicated in producing an alternative interpretation of the
problem, and, as such, focused attention on certain problem elements or
solution strategies might not be conducive to a felicitous change in
perspective. DeCaro intersects her analysis with a review of situational factors
that can raise or reduce working memory resources invested in the problem-
solving effort. She reviews evidence suggesting that a reduction in working
memory resources that attenuates analytic thinking can elevate insight
solution rates, whereas situational factors that cue analytic thinking might
lower them. DeCaro also offers reflections on how working memory
capacity is measured across the studies reviewed and how these measurement
decisions might determine the nature of the window they offer on the
involvement of working memory in insight problem solving. Finally, she
closes the chapter with suggestions on how to design interventions to
modulate working memory investments in different phases of the problem-
solving trajectory to enhance performance.
Ken Gilhooly and Margaret Webb open their chapter with a clear
description of the two competing perspectives on insight problem solving –
the so-called business as usual and special processes perspectives – and their
review of early Gestalt ideas on problem solving is particularly helpful. The
“business as usual” argument proposes that working memory scaffolds
thinking in a way that is similar for both insight and noninsight problems.
The “special processes” argument does not cast working memory as playing
such a key role; rather, insight reflects nonmonotonic changes in the
representation of the problem – that is, changes driven by associative
processes that are not guided by deliberate conscious analytic efforts. The
battleground then inevitably involves examining insight and noninsight
problem-solving performance while burdening or reducing working
memory, or by correlating performance with measures of working memory
capacity. Gilhooly and Webb provide a lucid description and summary of
these research efforts. Crucially, their evaluation of the probative weight of
the evidence takes into account statistical power, an important consideration
that has only belatedly preoccupied problem-solving researchers. Thus they
review dual-task experiments and experiments that seek to constrain
working memory, but primarily psychometric studies that report the
correlations among measures of working memory capacity and insight and
noninsight problem performance. Their review of the psychometric evidence
reveals a consistent pattern that suggests that working memory may be
implicated to a slightly larger degree in noninsight problem solving.
p.5

Adam Chuderski and Jan Jastrzębski also review the psychometric research
program, exploring the degree of shared variance between working memory
capacity and insight problem solving. In addition to Gilhooly and Webb’s
consideration of power, Chuderski and Jastrzębski reflect critically on the
reliability of the measure of insight problem solving (arguing that this should
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