MODULE NO.

6
ENERGY ANALYSIS OF OPEN AND CLOSED SYSTEMS

OVERVIEW

Thermodynamics is the science of energy and entropy; it deals with heat and work
and these properties of substances that bear a relation to heat and work.

In this module, you will learn the energy analysis of open and closed system.
Illustrative problems were provided before the end of this module.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, you should be able to appreciate the

equilibrium and non-equilibrium processes including the constant-property processes for
open and closed systems.

LEARNING PLAN

CLOSED SYSTEM

Science evolves by taking individual cases and relating their common aspects to
form a general case. The temptation is to present the general case and assume the
special cases will be understood. However, experience indicates that people grasp the
more complex or general case when they first understand the simpler cases. Before we
proceed in solving some problems, we must first decide whether an open- or a closed-
system analysis is to be used. Although here the sample problems and discussion will
indicate the system classification, in homework problems and in real-world situations you
must decide.

Constant-Pressure Process

We consider first a constant-pressure process for a closed system, illustrated in

Figure 6.1(a). The system receives an amount of heat Q, performs work W, and
experiences changes in internal energy, ∆𝑈 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 . The first law of thermodynamics
for a closed system at rest, valid for all processes, is

𝑄 = (𝑈2 − 𝑈1 ) + 𝑊 (6.1)

For reversible processes we may write the first law as

2
𝑄 = (𝑈2 − 𝑈1 ) + ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑉
1
 Figure 6.1 (a) A constant-pressure process with heat addition. (b) Graphical
interpretation of mechanical work for a constant-pressure process.

or

𝛿𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑝𝑑𝑉 (6.2)

also,

𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑝𝑉
𝑑𝐻 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑝𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉𝑑𝑝 (6.3)
where,
𝑑𝑝 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝 = 𝐶
so,
𝛿𝑄 = 𝑑𝐻 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝 = 𝐶 (6.4)
For an ideal gas with constant specific heats, the change in enthalpy and internal
energy can be written as,

∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1) 𝑘𝐽 (6.5a)

∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1) 𝑘𝐽 (6.5b)
For pure substances, the values of enthalpy and internal energy may be looked up
in tables. For a reversible constant-pressure process in a closed system, the work is
2
𝑊 = ∫1 𝑝𝑑𝑉 = 𝑝(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) (6.6a)
 Since p is constant, therefore

𝑝𝑉2 − 𝑝𝑉1 = 𝑝2 𝑉2 − 𝑝1 𝑉1

And so, work can be written as,

𝑊 = 𝑝2 𝑉2 − 𝑝1 𝑉1
Using the ideal-gas equation of state, 𝑝𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇, work can be written as,

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇2 − 𝑚𝑅𝑇1

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑅(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) (6.6b)

Examining the system in Figure 6.1(a) more closely, we note that when the piston
expands, it does work against the surroundings, displacing them as well as delivering
additional or net work available for other purposes. Very often the surroundings' pressure
is simply atmospheric pressure. The work expended in displacing the surroundings, 𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 ,
is
2
𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 = ∫1 𝑝𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑝𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) (6.7)

Does the work against the surroundings' pressure depend on the system process?
No. This pressure is almost always constant, typically atmospheric pressure, so the work
against the surroundings is a function of the initial and final system volume. Thus, we may
find the system work from the first-law analysis of the system, but to find the network
available to run a piece of equipment, we must subtract the work against the surroundings
from the system work.

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑊𝑠𝑦𝑠 − 𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 (6.8)

The net work does not influence the system work. It provides us with additional
information, but in most problems, we are interested only in system work.

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM NO.1

A piston-cylinder containing air expands at a constant pressure of 150 KPa from a

temperature of 285 OK to a temperature of 550 OK. The mass of air in the cylinder is 0.05
kg. Determine the system heat and work for the process as well as the net work available
if the surroundings' pressure acting on the piston is 101.3 kPa.

Solution:

Given: A cylinder containing air expands at constant pressure from an initial state to a
final state. The states are specified, as is the surroundings' pressure.
Find: The system heat and work and the net work available.

Sketch and Given Data:

Fig. 6.2

Assumptions:
1. The process is constant-pressure and reversible.
2. The changes in kinetic and potential energies may be neglected.
3. This is a closed system.
4. Air is an ideal gas.

Analysis: For a closed system undergoing a constant-pressure process, the first law may
be reduced as follows:

𝛿𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑝𝑑𝑉
𝛿𝑄 = 𝑑𝐻 − 𝑉𝑑𝑝
𝑑𝑝 = 0
Therefore,
𝛿𝑄 = 𝑑𝐻
or
𝑄 = 𝑑𝐻
Air is an ideal gas at the temperature and pressures in this problem. From table
A.1, the following values were taken: 𝑐𝑣 = 0.7176 𝑘𝐽/𝑘 ∙ 𝐾, 𝑐𝑝 = 1.0047 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾 and 𝑅 =
0.287 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾, thus

∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 ∆𝑇
∆𝐻 = (0.05 𝑘𝑔)(1.0047 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾)(500 − 285 𝑜 𝐾)
∆𝐻 = 13.3 𝑘𝐽
 From the first law for a closed system, 𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊, we note that by finding the
change in internal energy for air, the work may be determined.

∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 ∆𝑇
∆𝑈 = (0.05 𝑘𝑔)(0.7176 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾)( 500 − 285 𝑜 𝐾)
𝛥𝑈 = 9.5 𝑘𝐽

Substituting in the first law yields

𝑊 = 𝑄 − ∆𝑈 = 13.3 − 9.5 = 3.8 𝑘𝐽

This is the work that the system did in moving the piston from state 1 to state 2.
Some of this work is not available for a useful purpose, however, but must be expended
in displacing the surroundings. The work against the surroundings

𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 = 𝑝𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )

From the ideal-gas equation of state

𝑚𝑅𝑇1 (0.05 𝑘𝑔)(0.287 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾)(285𝑜 𝐾)

𝑉1 = = = 0.0273 𝑚3
𝑝1 150 𝑘𝑃𝑎

𝑚𝑅𝑇2 (0.05 𝑘𝑔)(0.287 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾)(550𝑜 𝐾)

𝑉2 = = = 0.0526 𝑚3
𝑝2 150 𝑘𝑃𝑎

𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 = 𝑝𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) = (101.3 𝑘𝑃𝑎)(0.0526 𝑚3 − 0.0273 𝑚3 ) = 2.56 𝑘𝐽

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑊𝑠𝑦𝑠 − 𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 = 3.8 𝑘𝐽 − 2.56 𝑘𝐽 = 1.23 𝑘𝐽

Alternate Solution:

for ideal gas, work can be written as,

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑅(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

Substituting values,

𝑊 = (0.05 𝑘𝑔)(0.287 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾)(550 𝐾 − 285 𝐾)

𝑊 = 3.8 𝑘𝐽

Work can also be determine using the equation,

 𝑊 = 𝑝(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝 = 𝐶

𝑊 = (150 𝑘𝑃𝑎)( 0.0526 𝑚3 − 0.0273 𝑚3 ) = 3.795 𝑘𝐽 0𝑟 3.8 𝑘𝐽

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM NO. 2

A rigid 1-m3 tank receives 500 kJ of heat and paddle work delivered for 1 hr with a shaft
torque of 1 J and a speed of 300 rpm. The tank contains steam initially at 300 kPa and
90% quality. Determine the final system temperature.

Solution:

Given: A tank contains wet steam and receives heat and paddle work, increasing the
system's energy.

Find: The final system temperature.

Sketch and Given Data:

Fig. 6.3

Assumptions:
1. The system is constant-volume and closed.
2. The system mechanical work is zero in light of assumption 1.
3. The initial and final states are equilibrium states.
4. The changes in kinetic and potential energies are zero.

Analysis: The first law for a closed system, invoking assumptions 2 and 4, may be written
as

𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊𝑝

where Wp is the paddle work added to the system by the rotating propeller. The
properties of steam at state 1 are found by using Table A.6, 𝑢𝑓 = 560.9 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔, 𝑢𝑓𝑔 =
1982.9 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔, 𝑣𝑓 = 0.0010734 𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔, 𝑣𝑔 = 0.60586 𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔
 𝑢1 = 𝑢𝑓 + 𝑥𝑢𝑓𝑔 = 560.9 + (0.90)(1982.9) = 2345.5 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥(𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑓 ) = 0.0010734 + (0.90)(0.60585 − 0.0010734)

𝑣1 = 0.5454 𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔

𝑉1 1 𝑚3
𝑚= = = 1.833 𝑘𝑔
𝑣1 0.5454 𝑚3⁄
𝑘𝑔

The paddle work may be found from equation

𝑊𝑝 = 𝜏𝜔𝑡 = (1.0 𝐽/𝑟𝑎𝑑)(5 𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑠)(2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑟𝑒𝑣)(3600 𝑠/ℎ𝑟)

𝑊𝑝 = 113100 𝐽 = 113.3 𝑘𝐽

Substituting into the first law equation, noting that work into a system is negative
and heat into a system is positive, yields

500 𝑘𝐽 = ∆𝑈 − 113.1 𝑘𝐽
∆𝑈 = 613.1 𝑘𝐽 = 𝑚 (𝑢2 − 𝑢1 )
613.1 𝑘𝐽 = (1.833 𝑘𝑔)(𝑢2 − 2345.5 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔)
613.1 𝑘𝐽 = 1.833 𝑢2 − 4299.3
1.833𝑢2 = 613.1 + 4299.3
4912.4
𝑢2 =
1.833
𝑢2 = 2679.98 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 = 2680 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
In this situation we know the final state is defined by its internal energy and specific
volume, 𝑣2 = 𝑣1 , for a constant-volume process. From the superheated steam table, we
find that the final state's temperature is approximately 220°C. This is found by performing
a double interpolation matching both the specific volume and internal energy, a tedious
manual task.

Constant-Temperature Processes

The third type of special process we can envision is a reversible constant-

temperature process. Because an ideal-gas equation of state is used in this discussion,
the results must be limited to ideal gases. It is, of course, possible to have constant-
temperature processes using tables of properties, but the following equations do not
apply. Consider again a piston-cylinder in Figure 6.4(a), which receives heat and
expands, doing work at constant temperature. Figure 6.4(b) illustrates the process on a
p-V diagram.

Fig. 6.4. A constant-temperature process in a piston-cylinder and illustrated in a

p-V diagram

The first law for a closed system is

2
𝑞 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑊 = ∆𝑈 + ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑉
1

We need 𝑝 as a function of V for a constant-temperature process. The ideal-gas

law shows that
𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇1
𝑝2 𝑉2 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇2
Form which,
𝑝1 𝑉1
𝑇1 =
𝑚𝑅
And
𝑝2 𝑉2
𝑇2 =
𝑚𝑅
Since
𝑇=𝐶
It follows that,
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 = 𝑇

Therefore,
𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑝2 𝑉2
=
𝑚𝑅 𝑚𝑅
 𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑝2 𝑉2 = 𝐶
or
𝑝𝑉 = 𝐶 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑇 = 𝐶
Solving for p yields,
𝐶
𝑝=
𝑉
Substitute to work equation, gives us,
2
𝑊 = ∫1 𝑝𝑑𝑉
2 𝑑𝑉 𝑉
𝑊 = ∫1 𝐶 = 𝐶𝑙𝑛(𝑉2 )
𝑉 1
𝑉
𝑊 = 𝑝1 𝑉1 ln (𝑉2 ) (6.9)
1

since U = U(T), then ∆𝑈 = 0. This may be readily seen for an ideal gas:
∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑇 = 𝐶

and
𝑄 = 𝑊 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑇 = 𝐶 (6.10)

OPEN SYSTEMS

When dealing with open systems in which there are steady-state, steady-flow
conditions, as discussed in previous module, the analysis is straightforward. One simply
equates all the energy entering the system to all the energy leaving the system and solves
that equation for the unknown, usually the heat or work of the system. Figure 6.5
illustrates a typical open system. In previous module we learned that heat for reversible
processes may be expressed as
.
𝛿𝑄 = 𝑑ℎ − 𝑣𝑑𝑝 (6.11)

Fig. 6.5. An open system with various energy forms.

 and work may be expressed as

𝛿𝑤 = −𝑣𝑑𝑝 − 𝑑 (𝑘. 𝑒. ) − 𝑑(𝑝. 𝑒. ) (6.12)

Equation (6.12) reduces to

𝛿𝑤 = −𝑣𝑑𝑝 (6.13)

𝛿𝑊̇ = −𝑚̇ ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑝 (6.14)

for negligible changes in potential and kinetic energies.

At this point let us consider the various processes. Of course, constant volume is
meaningless for open systems, but constant specific volume may be considered.

Constant-Pressure Process

Referring to equation (6.13), we note that in the absence of changes in kinetic and
potential energies, the work is zero. The heat transfer, determined from the first-law
equation, becomes equal to the change in enthalpy of the fluid. Heat exchangers are
modeled as constant-pressure open systems: no work is done, ideally no pressure drop
occurs, and heat is transferred from one fluid to another.

Constant-Temperature Processes-Ideal Gases

Let us calculate the power produced by a constant-temperature expansion

process. This is found by integrating equation (6.14). In this situation we assume
negligible changes in kinetic and potential energies. For an ideal gas

𝑝𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇

𝑝1 𝑣1 = 𝑅𝑇1

𝑝2 𝑣2 = 𝑅𝑇2

Since the temperature is constant, therefore

𝑇1 = 𝑇2 = 𝑇 = 𝐶

From ideal gas equations,

 𝑝1 𝑣1
𝑇1 =
𝑅
𝑝2 𝑣2
𝑇2 =
𝑅

Equating the temperature, we have,

𝑝1 𝑣1 𝑝2 𝑣2
=
𝑅 𝑅

𝑝1 𝑣1 = 𝑝2 𝑣2 = 𝐶
Thus,

𝑝𝑣 = 𝐶

𝑣 = 𝐶/𝑝

Substituting to work equation yields,

𝑊̇ = −𝑚̇ ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑝

2̇
𝑑𝑝
𝑊̇ = −𝑚̇ ∫ 𝐶
1 𝑝

Bringing C outside the integration sign

2
𝑑𝑝
𝑊̇ = −𝑚̇𝐶 ∫
1 𝑝

𝑊̇ = −𝑚𝐶 𝑙𝑛𝑝]12
𝑝2
𝑊̇ = −𝑚̇𝐶𝑙𝑛
𝑝1

But we know that,

𝐶 = 𝑝𝑣

Substitute C to the work equation, we have,

𝑊̇ = 𝑚̇1 𝑝1 𝑣1 lṅ (𝑝2 /𝑝1 )

Note that the assumption of reversibility was incorporated into the development
when the work was expressed as 𝑣𝑑𝑝. This is true only for reversible flow processes,
which is not a serious limitation: since a constant-temperature process is not physically
realizable but is used in some instances as the theoretical minimum work of compression,
assuming constant temperature is at least as great a restriction as assuming reversibility.
The heat flow is found from equation (6.11); note that it is equal to the power when 𝑑ℎ =
0, which for an ideal gas, 𝑑ℎ = 𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑇, occurs in isothermal processes.

Constant-Specific Volume Process

A process has constant specific volume when it is under the constraint of

incompressibility. The specific volume, hence density, remains constant. Very often in the
pumping of liquids and sometimes in compressing air slightly, the assumption of
incompressibility is realistic. Figure 6.6 diagrams rotative devices, turbines that produce
power and compressors and pumps that consume power. Figure 6.6(a) shows an axial-
flow turbine; the flow of the fluid is parallel to the rotor, or main axis, of the turbine. This
type of turbine is used in gas and steam turbine applications. The gas or steam enters
the turbine at a high pressure and temperature and exits at a lower pressure and
temperature. Usually, the change in potential energy is negligible, as the elevation change
across the turbine is quite small. Very often the change in kinetic energy is small enough
to be neglected, particularly when contrasted with the much larger changes in thermal
energy, denoted by the integral of ѵ𝑑𝑝 in equation (6.14). The section on turbomachinery
in other topic explains the fluid mechanics of the fluid-blade energy transfer. Because the
fluid entering the turbine is often at high temperatures, the control volume can lose heat
to the surroundings if the turbine casing is not well insulated. Engineers have noted that
losing heat to the surroundings precludes its being converted into work, and in most
instances the turbine casing is very well insulated. In both pumps and compressors as
illustrated in Figures 6.6(b) and 6.6(c), the changes in kinetic and potential energies
across the device are quite small compared to the change in thermal energy. The
centrifugal compressor or pump has fluid entering the rotating impeller axially. The fluid
has a component of velocity changed to the radial direction because of centrifugal force,
while it develops an angular velocity approaching the speed of the impeller. As the fluid
moves outward, more gas flows into the impeller, creating a continuous flow. As the fluid
flows through the diffuser, whose area increases with radial distance, the kinetic energy
decreases; this energy is manifested primarily by an increase in the pressure component
of the enthalpy. The Roots-type compressor traps a gas between the lobes and the casing
of the compressor and pushes it up to the pressure of the discharge line. The clearance
between the lobes and the casing and between the lobes themselves is very close, to
minimize leakage. Note that the lobes are rotating in opposite directions and that a steady
supply of gas is pushed through the compressor. In many applications neither the
pressure rise nor the temperature change is great, so the density variation is minimal,
and the fluid is considered to be incompressible.
 Fig. 6.6. Schematics of relative devices. (a) An axial-flow turbine.
(b) A centrifugal pump or compressor.
(c) A Roots-type compressor.

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM NO. 3

A compressor receives 0.75 m3/s of air at 290 OK and 101 kPa. The compressor
discharges the air at 707 kPa and 435 °K. The heat transfer from the control volume is
determined to be 2.1 kW. Determine the power required to drive the compressor.

Solution:

Given: An air compressor receives air at known inlet and exit conditions and with a known
rate of heat transfer from the control volume.

Find: The power to drive the compressor.

Sketch and Given Data:

Assumptions:

1. Air at these temperatures and pressures may be considered an ideal gas.

2. The flow is steady-state.
3. The changes in kinetic and potential energies may be neglected.

Analysis: The first law for a steady-flow open system is

𝑄̇ + 𝑚̇[ℎ1 + (𝑘. 𝑒. )1 + (𝑝. 𝑒. )1 ] = 𝑊̇ + 𝑚̇[ℎ2 + (𝑘. 𝑒. )2 + (𝑝. 𝑒. )2 ]

The mass flow rate of the air is not known but may be calculated from the ideal-
gas equation of state written as

𝑝𝑉̇ = 𝑚̇𝑅𝑇
𝑘𝐽
From table A.1, for Air 𝑅 = 0.287 𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾, 𝑐𝑝 = 1.0047 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾 , thus,

(101 𝑘𝑃𝑎)(0.75 𝑚3 /𝑠)

𝑚̇ = = 0.91 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
(0.287 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾)(290 𝐾)

Using assumptions 1 and 3, the first law becomes

𝑊̇ = 𝑄̇ ̇ + 𝑚̇(ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) = 𝑄̇ + 𝑚̇𝑐𝑝 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )

where the ideal-gas equation of state for enthalpy has been used.

𝑊̇ = −2.1 𝑘𝑊 + (0.91 𝑘𝑔/𝑠)(1.0047 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾)(290 − 435 𝐾)

𝑊̇ = −134.7 𝑘𝑊
 POLYTROPIC PROCESS

Closed System

The previous process types for gases in open and closed systems are special
cases of a more general type of process, called the polytropic process,

𝑝𝑉 𝑛 = 𝐶 (6.15a)
𝑝𝑣 𝑛 = 𝐶 (6.15b)
This process is illustrated in Figure 6.7 on a p-V diagram and exemplified by the
special constant-property processes. The constant-temperature process is a case when
n = 1, the constant-pressure process when n = 0, and the constant-volume process when
n = ∞. The polytropic processes are all assumed to be reversible. Note that pVn = C is the
equation of the line projected from the equilibrium surface. Relationships may be
developed between the temperature, pressure, and volume for a polytropic process
between state 1 and state 2. Using the ideal-gas law,

𝑝𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇

𝑝1 𝑣1𝑛 = 𝑝2 𝑣2𝑛 (6.16)

Also,

𝑅𝑇1
𝑝1 =
𝑣1

And

𝑅𝑇2
𝑝2 =
𝑣2
Divide the two equations, we have,

𝑝1 𝑇1 𝑣2
= ( )( )
𝑝2 𝑇2 𝑣1

For polytropic process between states 1 and 2,

𝑝1 𝑣2 𝑛
𝑝2
= (𝑣 ) (6.17a)
1

We substitute equation (6.16) into equation (6.17a)

 𝑇1 𝑣2 𝑣2 𝑛
( )( ) = ( )
𝑇2 𝑣1 𝑣1

𝑇1 𝑣 𝑛−1 𝑉 𝑛−1
= ( 2) = ( 2) (6.17b)
𝑇2 𝑣1 𝑉1

It also follows that,

1
𝑉 𝑇1 ⁄(𝑛−1)
(𝑉2 ) = (𝑇 ) (6.17c)
1 2

Fig. 6.7. The variation of pressure with volume for

different values of n.

Eliminating the volume, the result is,

(1−𝑛)⁄
𝑇1 𝑝2 𝑛 𝑝 (𝑛−1)/𝑛
= (𝑝 ) = (𝑝1 ) (6.18a)
𝑇2 1 2

𝑝1 𝑇 𝑛/(𝑛−1)
= ( 1) (6.18b)
𝑝2 𝑇2

The work may also be calculated from the pressure-volume functional relationship,
as follows,
2
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑉 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝 = 𝐶𝑉 −𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝑉 𝑛 = 𝐶
1
 2 𝐶𝑉21−𝑛−𝐶𝑉11−𝑛
𝑊 = ∫1 𝐶𝑉 −𝑛 𝑑𝑉 = (6.19a)
1−𝑛
Also,

𝐶 = 𝑝2 𝑉2𝑛 = 𝑝1 𝑉1𝑛

Substituting, we have,

𝑝2 𝑉2𝑛 − 𝑝1 𝑉1𝑛
𝑊=
1−𝑛

Using the ideal-gas law,

𝑝2 𝑉2 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇2

𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇1

The work can be written as,

𝑚𝑅(𝑇2−𝑇1)
𝑊= (6.19b)
1−𝑛

To derive equation (6.19a) the ideal-gas equation of state is not required; however,
it is required to derive equation (6.19b). Reversibility is common to both, since the integral
of 𝑝𝑑𝑉 is evaluated by a continuously defined pressure. One type of process that is
frequently used as a standard of comparison for any actual process is the reversible
adiabatic process. For a closed system the first law of thermodynamics for a reversible
change may be written as

𝛿𝑞 = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑝𝑑𝑣 (6.20a)
𝛿𝑞 = 𝑑ℎ − 𝑣𝑑𝑝 (6.20b)

Since 𝛿q = 0 for a reversible adiabatic process, defining du and dh in terms of an

ideal gas yields

𝑐𝑣 𝑑𝑇 = −𝑝𝑑𝑣 (6.20c)
𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑣𝑑𝑝 (6.20d)

Dividing equation (6.20d) by equation (6.20c),

𝑐𝑝 𝑣𝑑𝑝
= 𝑘 = − 𝑝𝑑𝑣
𝑐ѵ

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑝
𝑘 = (6.20e)
𝑣 𝑝
 Integrating equation (6.20e),

𝑣2 𝑝1
𝑘𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑣1 𝑝2

taking antilog, gives us

𝑣 𝑘 𝑝
(𝑣2 ) = (𝑝1 )
1 2
or

𝑝2 𝑣2𝑘 = 𝑝1 𝑣1𝑘 = 𝑝𝑣 𝑘 = 𝐶 (6.21a)

𝑝𝑉 𝑘 = 𝐶 (6.21b)

Equation (6.21b) is the same as equation (6.15b) except that n = k; hence, the
relationships among temperature, pressure, and volume are

𝑉2 𝑇 1/(𝑘−1)
= (𝑇1 ) (6.22a)
𝑉1 2

𝑝1 𝑇 𝑘/(𝑘−1)
= (𝑇1 ) (6.22b)
𝑝2 2

Open System (Steady-State, Steady-Flow)

In the case of open systems, an expression for the power may be determined
because the process is known. Neglecting variations in kinetic and potential energies,
from equation (6.14) and the process 𝑝𝑣 𝑛 = 𝐶,
2 2
𝑊̇ = −𝑚̇ ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑝 = −𝑚̇ ∫ 𝑐 1/𝑛 𝑝−1/𝑛 𝑑𝑝
1 1
from,

𝑝𝑣 𝑛 = 𝐶

It follows that,
 𝑝1 𝑣1𝑛 = 𝑝2 𝑣2𝑛 = 𝐶
So,

1/𝑛 1/𝑛
𝐶 1/𝑛 = 𝑝1 𝑣 = 𝑝2 𝑣2

substituting to work equation, we have

𝑛
𝑊̇ = 𝑚̇(𝑝1 𝑣1 − 𝑝2 𝑣2 )
𝑛−1
Note that

𝑝2 𝑣2 𝑝2 (𝑛−1)/𝑛
=( )
𝑝1 𝑣1 𝑝1

Substituting this the work equation gives us,

𝑛 𝑝2 (𝑛−1)/𝑛
𝑊̇ = 𝑚̇𝑅𝑇1 [1 − ( ) ]
𝑛−1 𝑝1

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM NO.4

A piston-cylinder compresses 0.11 kg of helium polytropically from 1 atm and 0 oC to 10

atm and 165°C. Determine the work and heat for the process.

Solution:

Given: Helium is compressed polytropically between two states.

Find: The work and heat for the compression process.

Sketch and Given Data:

Assumptions:
l. Helium is an ideal gas with constant specific heats.
2. The process is reversible.
3. The changes in kinetic and potential energies may be neglected.

Analysis: The first law for a closed system, neglecting changes in kinetic and potential
energies, is
𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊

the change of internal energy of an ideal gas with constant specific heats is

∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

From table A.1, 𝑐𝑣 = 3.1189 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾, thus

∆𝑈 = (0.11 𝑘𝑔)(3.1189 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾)(438 − 273 𝐾) = 56.6 𝑘𝐽

To evaluate the work for a polytropic compression, we must first evaluate the
polytropic exponent, n. we have,

1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 273 𝐾 𝑛/(𝑛−1)

( )=( )
10 𝑎𝑡𝑚 438 𝐾

Taking logs of both sides and solving for n yields,

1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑛 273 𝐾
log ( )= log ( )
10 𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑛−1 438 𝐾

𝑛
−1 = (−0.205)
𝑛−1

Dividing both sides of the equation by -0.205, and simplifying gives us,

−1 𝑛
=
−0.205 𝑛 − 1
𝑛
4.88 =
𝑛−1

4.88(𝑛 − 1) = 𝑛

4.88𝑛 − 4.88 = 𝑛

4.88𝑛 − 𝑛 = 4.88
 3.88𝑛 = 4.88

4.88
𝑛=
3.88

𝑛 = 1.259

The work may be evaluated from the equation,

𝑚𝑅(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑊=
1−𝑛

Substitute values, we have,

(0.11 𝑘𝑔)(2.077 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾)(438 − 273 𝐾)

𝑊=
1 − 1.295

𝑊 = −145.6 𝑘𝐽

From here the heat may be found by substituting into the first law equation

𝑄 = 56.6 𝑘𝐽 − 145.6 𝑘𝐽 = −89.0 𝑘𝐽

STUDENTS’ ACTIVITY

1. A rigid, perfectly insulated system contains 0.53 m3 of helium at 1000 kPa. The
system receives 1000 kJ of paddle work. Determine the final pressure. (10 pts)
2. A closed rigid container has a volume of 1 m3 and holds air at 344.8 kPa and
273 oK. Heat is added until the temperature is 600 oK. Determine the heat
added and the final pressure. (10 pts)
3. A piston-cylinder containing air receives heat at a constant temperature of 500
oK and an initial pressure of 200 kPa. The initial volume is 0.01 m 3, and the final

volume is 0.07 m3. Determine the heat and work. (10 pts)
4. Air is compressed polytropically from 101 kPa and 23 oC and delivered to a
tank at 1500 kPa and 17 5 oC. Determine per kg of air (a) the heat removed
during compression; (b) the reversible work. (10 pts)
5. An ideal gas having a mass of 2 kg at 465oK and 415 kPa expands in a
reversible adiabatic process to 138 kPa. The ideal-gas constant is 242 J/kg-K
and k = 1.40. Determine (a) the final temperature; (b) the change in internal
energy; (c) the work; (d) cp, cv. (20 pts)

SUGGESTED READINGS

David Burghardt, Engineering Thermodynamics with Applications, 2nd ed.

Robert T. Balmer, Modern Engineering Thermodynamics
Merle C. Potter and Craig W. Somerton, Theory and Problems of Thermodynamics for
Engineers (Schaum’s Outline Series)

REFERENCES

M. David Burghardt & James A. Harbach, Engineering Thermodynamics, 4th ed.