CHAPTER-9 SITE INVESTIGATION/EXPLORATION

Introduction
Site investigation or soil explorations are done for obtaining the
information about subsurface conditions at the site of proposed
construction. Soil exploration consists of determining the profile
of the natural soil deposits at the site, taking the soil samples
and determining the engineering properties of soils. It also
includes in-situ testing of soils. Site investigation describes the
process of carrying out investigations on land to determine whether
there is contamination present and to collect sufficient, suitable
data for the purpose of risk assessment. The investigation is
normally carried out in several stages. These stages range from a
desk study and simple visual inspection to full intrusive
investigation using trial pits and boreholes etc and the sampling
and analysis of materials.
9.1. Desk study and Site Reconnaissance
9.1.1. Desk Study
Desk Studies provide an opportunity to gather valuable information
for negligible cost. They are carried out at the start of the Site
Investigation, and involve reading existing information about the
site. This existing information could include: topographical maps,
geological maps, aerial photographs, existing SI records,
geotechnical journals.
9.1.2. Site Reconnaissance
Following the Desk Study, further information can be gained through
site reconnaissance. This involves a visit to the site for
inspection. Information can also be obtained by talking to local
inhabitants during the visit. Site reconnaissance can provide
information on the following: slopes and mounds, site geology,
surface water (ponds and streams) and erosion features, groundwater,
site access, condition of existing structures, existence of grave
sites or archaeological features.
9.2. Procedures of explorations:
The procedure of exploration can be divided into the following
steps:
1) Reconnaissance:
I) Collection of data about the project,
II) Geologic study of the site,
III) Site inspection.
2) Preliminary exploration:
I) Depth, extent, and composition of critical soil strata,
II) ground-water level and its fluctuations,
III) Depth of bed rock, when necessary,
Iv) Estimate of engineering properties of soil,
v) Initial selection of foundation possibilities.
3) Detailed exploration:
I) Additional test borings.
II) Undisturbed sampling if compressible soils are encountered
at critical depth.
III) laboratory/field tests if data on soil strength and
deformation characteristics are needed.
CHAPTER-9 SITE INVESTIGATION/EXPLORATION

9.3. Geotechnical exploration

Geotechnical investigations are performed to evaluate those
geologic, seismologic, and soils conditions that affect the safety,
cost effectiveness, design, and execution of a proposed engineering
project. Insufficient geotechnical investigations, faulty
interpretation of results, or failure to portray results in a
clearly understandable manner may contribute to inappropriate
designs; delays in construction schedules, costly construction
modifications, use of substandard borrow material, environmental
damage to the site, post construction remedial work, and even
failure of a structure and subsequent litigation. Investigations
performed to determine the geologic setting of the project include:
the geologic, seismologic, and soil conditions that influence
selection of the project site; the characteristics of the foundation
soils and rocks; geotechnical conditions which influence project
safety, design, and construction; critical geomorphic processes; and
sources of construction materials. A close relationship exists
between the geologic sciences and other physical sciences used in
the determination of project environmental impact and mitigation of
that impact. Those individuals performing geotechnical
investigations are among the first to assess the physical setting of
a project. Hence, senior-level, experienced personnel are required
to plan and supervise the execution of a geotechnical investigation.
Geotechnical investigations are to be carried out by engineering
geologists, geological engineers, geotechnical engineers, and
geologists and civil engineers with education and experience in
geotechnical investigations. Geologic conditions at a site are a
major influence on the environmental impact and impact mitigation
design, and therefore a primary portion of geotechnical
investigations is to observe and report potential conditions
relating to environmental impact. Factors influencing the selection
of methods of investigation include:

a. Nature of subsurface materials and groundwater conditions

b. Size of structure to be built or investigated.
c. Scope of the investigation, e.g., feasibility study,
formulation of plans and specifications.
d. Purpose of the investigation, e.g., evaluate stability of
existing structure and design a new structure.
e. Complexity of site and structure.
f. Topographic constraints.
g. Difficulty of application.
h. Degree to which method disturbs the samples or surrounding
grounds.
CHAPTER-9 SITE INVESTIGATION/EXPLORATION

i. Budget constraints.
j. Time constraints.
k. Environment requirements/consequences.
l. Political constraints.

Geotechnical Methods

a) Atterberg limits: The Atterberg limits define the boundaries of

several states of consistency for plastic soils. The boundaries are
defined by the amount of water a soil needs to be at one of those
boundaries. The boundaries are called the plastic limit and the
liquid limit, and the difference between them is called the
plasticity index. The shrinkage limit is also a part of the
Atterberg limits. The results of this test can be used to help
predict other engineering properties.

b) Grain size distribution: The grain size characteristics of soils

that are predominantly coarse grained are evaluated by a sieve
analysis. A nest of sieves is prepared by stacking test sieves one
above the other with the largest opening at the top followed by
sieves of successively smaller openings and a catch pan at the
bottom. Opening mesh sizes of commonly used sieves are shown in
table below.

Table-1: Sieve Standards

Seieve No. Millimeters
4 4.75
10 2.00
20 0.841
40 0.420
70 0.210
100 0.150
200 0.075

c) Shear Strength: The strength of a material is the greatest stress

it can sustain. So that the unit of strength is the same as stress
(Pa in SI unit system).
Significance of Shear Strength
• The safety of any geotechnical structure is dependent on the
strength of the soil;
• If the soil fails, the structure founded on it can collapse.
• Understanding shear strength is the basis to analyze soil
stability problems like:
. lateral pressure on earth retaining structures
. slope stability
. bearing capacity
CHAPTER-9 SITE INVESTIGATION/EXPLORATION

9.4. Geophysical Exploration

Introduction
Three classes of objectives are addressed by geophysical surveys:
the measurement of geologic features, the in situ determination of
engineering properties, and the detection of hidden cultural
features. Geologic features may include faults, bedrock lows,
discontinuities and voids, and groundwater. Engineering properties
that can be determined in situ include elastic moduli, electrical
resistivity and, to a lesser degree, magnetic and density
properties. Hidden cultural features available for geophysical
detection and characterization include buried underground tanks and
pipes, contaminant plumes, and landfill boundaries.
Environmental Safety
Geophysical surveys have their own associated hazards, particularly
with active energy sources. Some active sources are: shallow
explosions for seismic methods; applied electrical current with
resistivity methods; and, pulsed electromagnetic fields for ground-
penetrating radar. These hazards are addressed regularly by the
geophysical survey crew during planning and field deployment. The
addition of environmental site hazards (such as unexploded ordnance)
may compound the risks of geophysical exploration. Geophysical
personnel and the survey customer must have a continuous dialogue
and flexible plan to consider and accommodate the aspects of
environmental hazards. In addition, that plan should incorporate
health and safety practices in accordance with applicable
regulations and expert guidance.
Three classes of objectives are addressed by geophysical surveys:
the measurement of geologic features, the in situ determination of
engineering properties, and the detection of hidden cultural
features. Geologic features may include faults, bedrock lows,
discontinuities and voids, and groundwater. Engineering properties
that can be determined in situ include elastic moduli, electrical
resistivity and, to a lesser degree, magnetic and density
properties. Hidden cultural features available for geophysical
detection and characterization include buried underground tanks and
pipes, contaminant plumes, and landfill boundaries.
Geophysical Methods
Geophysical methods can be classified as active or passive
techniques. Active techniques impart some energy or effect into the
earth and measure the earth materials’ response. Passive
measurements record the strengths of various natural fields which
are continuous in existence. Active techniques generally produce
more accurate results or more detailed solutions due to the ability
to control the size and location of the active source.
a) Seismic Refraction Method
The seismic refraction method is based on the property of seismic
waves to refract (or be bent) when they travel from one medium to
another of different density or elasticity. The velocity of wave
transmission changes as it enters another material with different
elastic properties.
CHAPTER-9 SITE INVESTIGATION/EXPLORATION

Figure 9-1:The drawing above illustrates how refracted waves travel through a
subsurface consisting of an overburden with a seismic velocity of 1,000 feet per
second (305 meters/sec) over water-saturated overburden with a seismic velocity of
5,000 ft/sec (1,500 m/s) over bedrock with a seismic velocity of 15,000 ft/sec
(4,600 m/s).

Seismic refraction calculations that allow the computation of layer

thickness, are used for both natural energy sources such as shocks
generated by earthquakes or volcanic activity, or subsurface
exploration using man-generated shocks by use of explosives, weight
dropping, sledge hammers, etc. Typically, shallow earth materials
have wave transmission velocities that increase with depth. The
seismic refraction method is most effective (and accurate) when each
successive layer has a higher transmission velocity than all
overlying layers.

b) Magnetic Methods
Introduction
The earth possesses a magnetic field caused primarily by sources in
the core. The form of the field is roughly the same as would be
caused by a dipole or bar magnet located near the earth’s center and
aligned sub parallel to the geographic axis. The intensity of the
earth’s field is customarily expressed in S.I. units as nanoteslas
(nT) or in an older unit, gamma (g): 1 g = 1 nT= 10-3 μT. Except for local
perturbations, the intensity of the earth’s field varies between
about 25 and 80 μT over the coterminous United States.
Many rocks and minerals are weakly magnetic or are magnetized by
induction in the earth’s field, and cause spatial perturbations or
“anomalies” in the earth’s main field. Man-made objects containing
iron or steel are often highly magnetized and locally can cause
large anomalies up to several thousands of nT. Magnetic methods are
generally used to map the location and size of ferrous objects.
Determination of the applicability of the magnetic method should be
CHAPTER-9 SITE INVESTIGATION/EXPLORATION

done by an experienced engineering geophysicist. Modeling and

incorporation of auxiliary information may be necessary to produce
an adequate work plan.
6-2. Theory
The earth’s magnetic field dominates most measurements on the
surface of the earth. The earth’s total field intensity varies
considerably by location over the surface of the earth. Most
materials except for permanent magnets, exhibit an induced magnetic
field due to the behavior of the material when the material is in a
strong field such as the earth’s. Induced magnetization (sometimes
called magnetic polarization) refers to the action of the field on
the material wherein the ambient field is enhanced causing the
material itself to act as a magnet. The field caused by such a
material is directly proportional to the intensity of the ambient
field and to the ability of the material to enhance the local field,
a property called magnetic susceptibility. The induced magnetization
is equal to the product of the volume magnetic susceptibility and
the inducing field of the earth:
I = k F (9-1)
Where,
k = volume magnetic susceptibility (unit less)
I = induced magnetization per unit volume
F= field intensity in tesla (T)
For most materials k is much less than 1 and, in fact, is usually of
the order of 10-6 for most rock materials. The most important
exception is magnetite whose susceptibility is about 0.3. From a
geologic standpoint, magnetite and its distribution determine the
magnetic properties of most rocks. There are other important
magnetic minerals in mining prospecting, but the amount and form of
magnetite within a rock determines how most rocks respond to an
inducing field. Iron, steel, and other ferromagnetic alloys have
susceptibilities one to several orders of magnitude larger than
magnetite. The exception is stainless steel, which has a small
susceptibility.
The importance of magnetite cannot be exaggerated. Some tests on
rock materials have shown that a rock containing 1 percent magnetite
may have a susceptibility as large as 10-3, or 1,000 times larger
than most rock materials.
Table 6-1 provides some typical values for rock materials. Note that
the range of values given for each sample generally depends on the
amount of magnetite in the rock. Thus it can be seen that in most
engineering and environmental scale investigations, the sedimentary
and alluvial sections will not show sufficient contrast such that
magnetic measurements will be of use in mapping the geology.
However, the presence of ferrous materials in ordinary municipal
trash and in most industrial waste does allow the magnetometer to be
effective in direct detection of landfills. Other ferrous objects
which may be detected include pipelines, underground storage tanks,
and some ordnance.
CHAPTER-9 SITE INVESTIGATION/EXPLORATION

Table-2: Approximate Magnetic Susceptibility of Representative

Rock Types Rock Type Susceptibility (k)
Altered ultra basics 10-4 to 10-2
Basalt 10-4 to 10-3
Gabbro 10-4
Granite 10-5 to 10-3
Andesite 10-4
Rhyolite 10-5 to 10-4
Metamorphic rocks 10-4 to 10-6
Most sedimentary rocks 10-6 to 10-5
Limestone and chert 10-6
Shale 10-5 to 10-4

c) Resistivity Methods
Introduction
Surface electrical resistivity surveying is based on the principle
that the distribution of electrical potential in the ground around a
current-carrying electrode depends on the electrical resistivities
and distribution of the surrounding soils and rocks. The usual
practice in the field is to apply an electrical direct current (DC)
between two electrodes implanted in the ground and to measure the
difference of potential between two additional electrodes that do
not carry current. Usually, the potential electrodes are in line
between the current electrodes, but in principle, they can be
located anywhere. The current used is either direct current,
commutated direct current (i.e., a square-wave alternating current),
AC of low frequency (typically about 20 Hz). All analysis and
interpretation are done on the basis of direct currents. The
distribution of potential can be related theoretically to ground
resistivities and their distribution for some simple cases; notably,
the case of a horizontally stratified ground and the case of
homogeneous masses separated by vertical planes (e.g., a vertical
fault with a large throw or a vertical dike).
For other kinds of resistivity distributions, interpretation is
usually done by qualitative comparison of observed response with
that of idealized hypothetical models or on the basis of empirical
methods.
(1) Mineral grains composing soils and rocks are essentially
nonconductive, except in some exotic materials such as metallic
ores, so the resistivity of soils and rocks is governed primarily by
the amount of pore water, its resistivity, and the arrangement of
the pores. To the extent that differences of lithology are
accompanied by differences of resistivity, resistivity surveys can
be useful in detecting bodies of anomalous materials or in
estimating the depths of bedrock surfaces. In coarse granular soils,
the groundwater surface is generally marked by an abrupt change in
water saturation and thus by a change of resistivity. In fine-
grained soils, however, there may be no such resistivity change
coinciding with a piezometric surface. Generally, since the
resistivity of a soil or rock is controlled primarily by the pore
water conditions, there are wide ranges in resistivity for any
particular soil or rock type, and resistivity values cannot be
CHAPTER-9 SITE INVESTIGATION/EXPLORATION

directly interpreted in terms of soil type or lithology. Commonly,

however, zones of distinctive resistivity can be associated with
specific soil or rock units on the basis of local field or drill
hole information, and resistivity surveys can be used profitably to
extend field investigations into areas with very limited or
nonexistent data. Also, resistivity surveys may be used as a
reconnaissance method, to detect anomalies that can be further
investigated by complementary geophysical methods and/or drill
holes. (2) The electrical resistivity method has some inherent
limitations that affect the resolution and accuracy that may be
expected from it. Like all methods using measurements of a potential
field, the value of a measurement obtained at any location
represents a weighted average of the effects produced over a large
volume of material, with the nearby portions contributing most
heavily. This tends to produce smooth curves, which do not lend
themselves to high resolution for interpretations. There is another
feature common to all potential field geophysical methods; a
particular distribution of potential at the ground surface does not
generally have a unique interpretation. While these limitations
should be recognized, the non-uniqueness or ambiguity of the
resistivity method is scarcely less than with the other geophysical
methods. For these reasons, it is always advisable to use several
complementary geophysical methods in an integrated exploration.
Theory
(1) Data from resistivity surveys are customarily presented and
interpreted in the form of values of apparent resistivity a. apparent
resistivity is defined as the resistivity of an electrically
homogeneous and isotropic half-space that would yield the measured
relationship between the applied current and the potential
difference for a particular arrangement and spacing of electrodes.
An equation giving the apparent resistivity in terms of applied
current, distribution of potential, and arrangement of electrodes
can be arrived at through an examination of the potential
distribution due to a single current electrode. The effect of an
electrode pair (or any other combination) can be found by
superposition. Consider a single point electrode, located on the
boundary of a semi-infinite, electrically homogeneous medium, which
represents a fictitious homogeneous earth. If the electrode carries
a current I, measured in amperes (a), the potential at any point in
the medium or on the boundary is given by:

Where,
U = potential, in V
= resistivity of the medium
r = distance from the electrode program rather than relying on
a single exploration method.
CHAPTER-9 SITE INVESTIGATION/EXPLORATION

The types of electrode arrays that are most commonly used

(Schlumberger, Wenner, and dipole-dipole) are illustrated in the
following Figure.

Figure 9-2. Electrode (array) configurations for resistivity measurements

(A) Schlumberger array (Figure 9-2a). For this array, in the limit
as approaches zero, the quantity V/a approaches the value of the
potential gradient at the midpoint of the array. In practice, the
sensitivity of the instruments limits the ratio of to and
usually keeps it within the limits of about 3 to 30. Therefore, it
is typical practice to use a finite electrode spacing and Equation
9-3 to compute the geometric factor (Keller and Frischknecht 1966).
The apparent resistivity is:

a =  - = -

In usual field operations, the inner (potential) electrodes remain
fixed, while the outer (current) electrodes are adjusted to vary the
distance s. The spacing is adjusted when it is needed because of
decreasing sensitivity of measurement. The spacing a must never be
larger than 0.4s or the potential gradient assumption is no longer
valid. Also, the spacing may sometimes be adjusted with s held
CHAPTER-9 SITE INVESTIGATION/EXPLORATION

constant in order to detect the presence of local inhomogeneities or

lateral changes in the neighborhood of the potential electrodes.
(B) Wenner array. This array (Figure 9-2b) consists of four
electrodes in line, separated by equal intervals, denoted .
Applying Equation (9-3); the user will find that the geometric
factor K is equal to , so the apparent resistivity is given by:

= 2a
While the Schlumberger array has always been the favored array in
Europe, until recently, the Wenner array was used more extensively
than the Schlumberger array in the United States. In a survey with
varying electrode spacing, field operations with the Schlumberger
array are faster, because all four electrodes of the Wenner array
are moved between successive observations, but with the Schlumberger
array, only the outer ones need to be moved. The Schlumberger array
also is said to be superior in distinguishing lateral from vertical
variations in resistivity. On the other hand, the Wenner array
demands less instrument sensitivity, and reduction of data is
marginally easier.
(C) Dipole-dipole array. The dipole-dipole array (Figure 9-2c) is
one member of a family of arrays using dipoles (closely spaced
electrode pairs) to measure the curvature of the potential field. If
the separation between both pairs of electrodes is the same and
the separation between the centers of the dipoles is restricted to a
(n+1), the apparent resistivity is given by:
= a n (n+ 1) (n +2)
Field procedures:
Resistivity surveys are made to satisfy the needs of two distinctly
different kinds of interpretation problems: (1) the variation of
resistivity with depth, reflecting more or less horizontal
stratification of earth materials; and (2) lateral variations in
resistivity that may indicate soil lenses, isolated ore bodies,
faults, or cavities. For the first kind of problem, measurements of
apparent resistivity are made at a single location (or around a
single center point) with systematically varying electrode spacings.
This procedure is sometimes called vertical electrical sounding
(VES), or vertical profiling. Surveys of lateral variations may be
made at spot or grid locations or along definite lines of traverse,
a procedure sometimes called horizontal profiling. (1) Vertical
electrical sounding (VES). Either the Schlumberger or, less
effectively, the Wenner array is used for sounding, since all
commonly available interpretation methods and interpretation aids
for sounding are based on these two arrays. In the use of either
method, the center point of the array is kept at a fixed location,
while the electrode locations are varied around it. The apparent
resistivity values, and layer depths interpreted from them, are
referred to the center point. (a) In the Wenner array, the
electrodes are located at distances of /2 and 3 /2 from the center
point. The most convenient way to locate the electrode stations is
CHAPTER-9 SITE INVESTIGATION/EXPLORATION

to use two measuring tapes, pinned with their zero ends at the
center point and extending away from the center in opposite
directions. After each reading, each potential electrode is moved
out by half the increment in electrode spacing and each current
electrode is moved out by 1.5 times the increment. The increment to
be used depends on the interpretation methods that will be applied.
d) Ground-Penetrating Radar
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) uses a high-frequency (80 to 1,000
MHz) EM pulse transmitted from a radar antenna to probe the earth.
The transmitted radar pulses are reflected from various interfaces
within the ground and this return is detected by the radar receiver.
Reflecting interfaces may be soil horizons, the groundwater surface,
soil/rock interfaces, man-made objects, or any other interface
possessing a contrast in dielectric properties. The dielectric
properties of materials correlate with many of the mechanical and
geologic parameters of materials.
(1) The radar signal is imparted to the ground by an antenna that is
in close proximity to the ground. The reflected signals can be
detected by the transmitting antenna or by a second, separate
receiving antenna. The received signals are processed and displayed
on a graphic recorder. As the antenna (or antenna pair) is moved
along the surface, the graphic recorder displays results in a cross-
section record or radar image of the earth. As GPR has short
wavelengths in most earth materials, resolution of interfaces and
discrete objects is very good. However, the attenuation of the
signals in earth materials is high and depths of penetration seldom
exceed 10 m. Water and clay soils increase the attenuation,
decreasing penetration.
(2) The objective of GPR surveys is to map near surface interfaces.
For many surveys, the location of objects such as tanks or pipes in
the subsurface is the objective. Dielectric properties of materials
are not measured directly. The method is most useful for detecting
changes in the geometry of subsurface interfaces.
(3) Geologic problems conducive to solution by GPR methods are
numerous and include the following: bedrock configuration, location
of pipes and tanks, location of the groundwater surface, borrow
investigations, and others. Geologic and geophysical objectives
determine the specific field parameters and techniques. Delineation
of the objectives and the envelope of acceptable parameters are
specified in advance. However, as the results cannot be foreseen
from the office, considerable latitude is given to the field
geophysicist to incorporate changes in methods and techniques.
Remote Sensing Methods
Conventional aerial photographs and various types of imagery can be
used effectively for large-scale regional interpretation of geologic
structure, analyses of regional lineaments, drainage patterns, rock
types, soil characteristics, erosion features, and availability of
construction materials (Rasher and Weaver 1990, Gupta 1991).
Geologic hazards, such as faults, fracture patterns, subsidence, and
sink holes or slump topography, can also be recognized from air
CHAPTER-9 SITE INVESTIGATION/EXPLORATION

photo and imagery interpretation, especially from stereoscopic

examinations of photo pairs. Technology for viewing stereoscopic
projections on the PC is available. Detailed topographic maps can be
generated from aerial photography that have sufficient surveyed
ground control points. Remote sensing images that are in digital
format can be processed to enhance geologic features (Gupta 1991).
Although it is normally of limited value to site-specific studies,
satellite imagery generated by Landsat, Sky Lab, the Space Shuttle,
and the French Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre (SPOT)
satellites are useful for regional studies. Remote sensing methods
listed below can be used to identify and evaluate topographic,
bathymetric, and subsurface features:
a. Topographic/surface methods.
- Airborne photography (mounted on helicopter or conventional
aircraft).
- Airborne spectral scanner (mounted on helicopter or
conventional aircraft).
- Photogrammetry (for imagery processing or mapping of
airborne/satellite spectral scanned data).
- Satellite spectral scanner (e.g., Landsat).
- Satellite synthetic aperture radar (SAR).
- Side-looking airborne radar (SLAR).
b. Topographic/subsurface methods.
- Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR).
- Seismic.
- Gravitometer.
- Magnetometer.
c. Bathymetric methods.
- Fathometer (vessel mounted).
- Side-scan sonar (vessel mounted or towed).
- Seismometer/sub bottom profiler (bathymetry subsurface,
vessel mounted, or towed).
- Magnetometer (vessel towed).
- Gravitometer (vessel towed).
- Remotely Opertated Vehicle (ROV) mounted video or acoustic
sensor.
- SeaBat (multibeam echo sounder) technology.