UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

NCERT SOLVED QUESTIONS :-

Q1: Note what are the marriage rules that are followed in your society? Compare
your observations with these made by other students in the class. Discuss.
Ans: In our society, the primary marriage system is monogamy. This means:
Each person can marry only one partner at a time.
Remarriage is allowed only after the death of a spouse or following a divorce.
Most marriages are arranged by parents, a practice known as arranged marriage.
However, some individuals choose to enter into love marriages, where partners select
each other. In contrast, other societies may practice polygamy, which allows individuals
to have multiple spouses. This can take two forms:

● Polygyny: One man can have multiple wives.

● Polyandry: One woman can have multiple husbands.
It is important to note that while polygamy exists in some cultures, it is not legally
recognised in many religions.

Q2: Find out how membership, residence pattern and even the mode of
interaction changes in the family with broader economic, political and cultural
changes, for instance migration.
Ans: Family is an institution where members live together and maintain cordial
relationships. It is influenced by broader political, economic, and cultural activities in
society.
Here are some ways these factors affect the family:

Cultural Change: Changes in culture can alter family membership, residence patterns,
and modes of interaction. For instance:
In matrilineal societies, women often have a significant role in decision-making.
In patriarchal societies, men typically hold authority.
A shift towards individualism may lead to the formation of nuclear families, while
stronger interpersonal relationships can result in joint families.
Political Change: The political landscape can also impact family structures. For
example:
In the post-unification period of the 1990s, Germany saw a decline in marriages as the
new state removed welfare protections previously available to families.
Economic Change: Economic shifts can indirectly affect families. For example:
Industrialisation has contributed to the rise of nuclear families.
Women have increasingly taken on instrumental roles within the family.
Migration: Economic instability often drives migration. For instance:
People from flood-affected areas may move to cities for jobs and new homes.
In some cases, women remain in villages to manage households while their husbands
seek work in cities.
Migration alters housing patterns, with migrants often living in slums or temporary
shelters.
In cities, families may live separately from extended relatives, shifting from living with
parents to a more isolated family unit.
This illustrates how membership patterns within families can change due to various
societal influences.

Q3: Write an essay on `work'. Focus on both the range of occupations, which
exist and how they change.
Ans: Work refers to activities that require mental or physical effort, aimed at producing
goods and services to meet human needs. It can be either paid or unpaid, with paid
work often regarded as the primary form of employment. There are two main types of
occupations:

Formal Employment: Found in the organised sector, where workers receive regular
salaries and benefits.
Informal Employment: Exists in the unorganised sector, often unrecorded, with
payments made irregularly, sometimes in goods or services.
Historically, work was primarily conducted at home, forming the basis of informal
employment. However, with industrialisation and technological advancements, work
shifted to factories and offices, leading to the rise of formal employment. Occupations
have evolved over time:
As work became more complex, a specialised division of labour emerged.
Machines began to replace human labour, breaking down tasks into simpler operations
that could be efficiently managed.
In modern society, the landscape of work continues to change:
There is a significant shift towards the service sector, with many jobs now
focused on providing services rather than manufacturing goods.
In countries like India, a large portion of the population still engages in rural agricultural
work, although this too is becoming more industrialised.

Q4: Discuss the kind of rights that exist in your society. How do they affect your
life?
Ans: In our society, there are three main types of rights:
Political rights: These allow citizens to participate in government, such as voting in
elections.
Civil rights: These include freedoms like speech, religion, and the right to equal justice.
Citizens can live anywhere in the country and own property regardless of gender.
Social rights: These provide benefits such as healthcare, unemployment support, and
minimum wage standards, ensuring a basic level of economic welfare.
These rights significantly impact individual lives by:
Enabling personal growth and development.
Allowing individuals to pursue higher education and interests, such as music or dance.
Providing the freedom to practice any religion.
Empowering individuals to seek justice through legal channels.
Overall, these rights contribute to a well-functioning society and enhance the quality of
life for all citizens.

Q5: How does sociology study religion?

Ans: Sociology studies religion as a significant social institution through three main
approaches:

Empirical study: Examines the functions of religion and its connections to society.
Comparative method: Compares different religions and their societal roles.
Investigative approach: Looks at religious beliefs and practices in relation to other
societal aspects.
There are different groups of religion that originated with the change and need of the
society such as Hinduism, Christianity, Islam, Buddhism and Jainism, etc.
Religion has certain beliefs, norms, rules and regulations that are expected to be
followed by its members, which govern and regulate their behaviour.
Further, religion has had a very close relationship with power and politics. There have
been many social movements which were carried out on the basis of religion.
Classical sociologists believed that as societies have modernised, the influence of
religion on the lives of individuals has decreased, which has led to secularism.
Many thinkers of sociology have presented their theories upon religion and their origin.
For example, Max Weber in his study, The Protestant Ethic and The Rise of Capitalism
viewed that capitalism was a result of Calvinism and their thinking of increasing the
economic activity, in order to please the god.
Similarly, Emile Durkheim presented the view of differentiating the sacred from the
profane that existed in religious societies.
Further religion is not only a private matter of the individual but it also has a public
character, as it holds strong ties with other institutions like politics, economics,
education and marriage and kinship.
Q6: Write an essay on school as a social institution. Draw from both your reading
as well as your personal observations.
Ans: The need for education has led to the establishment of schools, which serve as a
means of transmitting group heritage across societies. Schools play a crucial role in:

Disciplining and regulating human behaviour.

Providing formal education, governed by specific norms and values.
According to sociologist Emile Durkheim, a society requires a common base of ideas
and practices that education must instil in all children, regardless of their background.
This ensures:
Maintenance and development of the social structure and culture.
Preparation for future roles within society.
For functionalists, education acts as a key mechanism for social stratification. It helps
individuals acquire different privileges based on their socio-economic backgrounds.

This can lead to:

● Children from privileged schools gaining confidence.
● Children from less advantaged backgrounds feel less capable.
Moreover, many children face barriers to education due to factors like gender and caste
discrimination, which affect their opportunities. Overall, schools are vital for
socialisation, helping children learn to integrate into society by adopting its values and
norms.

Q7: Discuss how these social institutions interact with each other. You can start
the discussion from yourself as a senior school student. And move on to how
you are shaped by different social institutions. Are you entirely controlled or can
you also resist and redefine social institutions?
Ans: Social institutions such as marriage, family, politics, education, economics, and
religion interact and influence one another significantly.

Here are some key points regarding their interactions:

● Religion has a profound impact on various aspects of social and cultural life,
affecting family structures, marriage practices, and educational systems.
● Religious institutions historically influenced political and economic systems,
contributing to the rise of capitalism.
● In modern societies, the influence of religion has diminished but still affects
family, marriage, and kinship.
 ● Economic and political policies can shape family dynamics, often leading to
fragmentation.
● While social institutions can constrain individuals, they also provide opportunities
for growth and change.
● Resisting and redefining social institutions is challenging but can be achieved
through social movements and protests.
● As a senior school student, I am shaped by these institutions, but I also have the
agency to challenge and redefine them in my life.

Summary of the Chapter

UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

Introduction
Our status and role are predetermined and not subject to choice, unlike the roles an
actor might play. Social institutions, including governmental and familial structures,
impose limitations, punishments, and rewards on individuals. Sociology and
anthropology examine these institutions, which are the focus of this chapter.

Institutions
An institution is an entity that functions according to established rules, whether these
are legal or customary. Its regular functioning relies on following these principles,
binding individuals to them. An institution can also be considered an end in itself, as
people often view family, religion, state, or education this way.

For instance, family, church, state, and education are seen as both means to an end
and as ends in themselves. The main areas where significant social institutions exist
include: (i) family, marriage, and kinship; (ii) politics; (iii) economics; (iv) religion; and (v)
education.

Sociological Perspectives:
Sociological interpretations of institutions vary. The functionalist and conflict
perspectives offer different views on social phenomena such as stratification and social
control.
Functionalist Perspective: From this view, social institutions are seen as complex
systems of social norms, beliefs, values, and role relationships that emerge to meet
societal needs. Societies have both formal and informal institutions. For instance, family
and religion are considered informal social institutions, while law and education are
formal social institutions.

Conflict Perspective: This perspective argues that not all individuals are treated equally
in society. Social institutions—including family, religion, politics, economics, law, and
education—serve the interests of dominant groups. The dominant sector influences
political and economic institutions and ensures that the ruling class's beliefs become the
prevailing ideas in society.

Family, Marriage and Kinship

A family is a group of individuals connected by blood, with adult members responsible

for caring for children. Kinship links refer to relationships formed through marriage or
bloodline that connect relatives.

Research on Family, Marriage, and Kinship: Sociology and social anthropology has
conducted field research across various cultures to highlight the importance of family,
marriage, and kinship institutions in all communities, though these institutions have
different characteristics in different societies.

Functionalist Perspective: From this viewpoint, the family is crucial for fulfilling society’s
basic needs and maintaining social order. Functionalists believe that modern industrial
societies function best when women handle family care and men earn the family’s
income.

Nuclear Family: Functionalists see the nuclear family as the ideal unit for industrial
society. In this setup, one adult works outside the home while the other manages
domestic tasks and child-rearing. The division of labour within the nuclear family
typically involves:
Husband: Taking on the "instrumental" role of breadwinner.
Wife: Assuming the "affective" role, focusing on emotional care and domestic
responsibilities.

Try yourself:
Which perspective emphasizes that social institutions serve the dominant segments of
society, ensuring their beliefs become prevailing ideas?
[Link] perspective
[Link] perspective
[Link] perspective
[Link] perspective
Variation in Family Forms:
Shift in Family Structures: Sociologist A.M. Shah notes that since India's independence,
the number of joint families has been growing. While nuclear families have always
existed, they are more common among lower castes and classes.
Increase in Joint Families: Shah attributes this rise to the increasing life expectancy in
India. Life expectancy for men rose from 32.5 to 55.4 years, and for women, it increased
from 31.7 to 55.7 years between 1941-50 and 1981-85.
Impact of the Elderly Population: As a result, the percentage of elderly people (60 years
and older) in the population has grown. Shah poses the question, "In what type of
household do these elderly individuals reside?" He suggests that most live in joint
households.

Challenge to Common Views: This observation is a generalisation. However, it serves

as a reminder to question the widely held belief that joint families are declining and
highlights the necessity for thorough research and comparisons.
Female-Headed Households: When men move to cities for work, women often take
over farming and become the main earners for their families. These are known as
female-headed households. This can also occur due to widowhood or when men
remarry and stop providing for their former families. In the Kolam community, a tribal
group in south-eastern Maharashtra and northern Andhra Pradesh, female-headed
households are commonly accepted.
Matrilocal vs. Patrilocal Family Structures:
Matrilocal: Living with the wife’s parents.
Patrilocal: Living with the husband’s parents.

Patriarchal vs. Matriarchal Family Structures:

Patriarchal: Men hold authority.
Matriarchal: Women hold significant power, though true matriarchal societies are rare.
Matrilineal Societies: These societies trace lineage through the mother, but genuine
matriarchal societies are less common.

Families are Linked to Other Social Spheres and Families [Link], household,
and their structure are closely linked to economic and political spheres.
German unification in the 1990s led to a decline in marriage due to the withdrawal of
welfare schemes and protection for families.
Economic insecurity post-unification influenced people to refuse marriage, illustrating
unintended consequences.
Family and kinship are subject to change due to macroeconomic processes, but the
direction of change varies by country and region.
Change does not mean the complete erosion of previous norms and structures;
continuity and change can coexist.

How gendered is the family?

The idea that a male child will provide for parents in their old age, while a female child
will leave upon marriage, leads families to invest more in male children.
Although female babies generally have a higher chance of survival, the rate of infant
mortality for female children is still greater than that for males in younger age groups in
India.
Family and kinship are influenced by larger economic changes, but the way these
changes occur can vary greatly between different countries and regions. Both change
and continuity can exist together.

The Institution of Marriage

Historically, marriage has existed in a wide variety of forms across different societies.
Marriage has been observed to perform differing functions in various contexts.
The methods by which marriage partners are arranged exhibit a remarkable variety of
modes and customs.

Try yourself:
Which factor has contributed to the increase in joint families in post-independent India?
[Link] life expectancy
[Link] in marriage rates
[Link] insecurity post-unification
[Link] of welfare schemes

Forms of Marriage

Variety of Marriage Forms:

Marriage comes in different forms, depending on the number of partners involved and
the rules about who can marry whom. The two main forms based on the number of
partners are monogamy and polygamy.

1. Monogamy: This form of marriage limits individuals to one spouse at a time. Here, a
man can have only one wife, and a woman can have only one husband.

2. Polygamy: In contrast, polygamy allows individuals to have multiple partners at once

and includes:
[Link]: A system where one husband has several wives.

[Link]: A system where one wife has multiple husbands. Despite the allowance for
polygamy, monogamy is more common in practice.

5. Serial Monogamy: This form permits individuals to remarry, usually after a spouse
dies or after a divorce, but they cannot have more than one spouse at the same time. It
is common for men to remarry after the death of a wife.

Widow Remarriage: Historically, widow remarriage faced restrictions, especially among

upper-caste Hindus, and became a major issue during the reform movements of the
19th century. In contemporary India, nearly 10 percent of all women and 55 per cent of
women over fifty years old are widows.

Polyandry and Economic Conditions: Polyandry can develop as a response to difficult

economic conditions where one man cannot support a wife and children adequately.
Extreme poverty can also pressure a group to limit its population.

The Matter of Arranging Marriages:

Rules and Prescriptions
Mate selection varies across communities, with some allowing individuals to freely
choose their own partners, while others involve parents or relatives in making such
decisions.

Rules of Endogamy and Exogamy

Restrictions on who can marry can be either subtle or explicit, depending on the society.
Endogamy requires individuals to marry within a culturally defined group, such as a
caste.
Exogamy mandates that individuals marry outside of their group.
Endogamy and exogamy are applied to kinship units like clan, caste, or racial, ethnic, or
religious groups.
In India, village exogamy is practised in some northern regions, where daughters are
married into families from distant villages.
Village exogamy facilitates the bride's adjustment into the new family and minimises
interference from her natal kin.
The geographical distance and patrilineal system in village exogamy reduce the
frequency of visits from married daughters to their parents.
The departure from the natal home is often depicted in folk songs, reflecting the
emotional pain of separation.
Family: A family is a group of people connected by kinship, where adult members take
care of children.
Kinship Ties: These are connections between people formed either by marriage or
through blood relationships (like mothers, fathers, siblings, and children).
Marriage: This is a socially recognised and accepted union between two adults. When
individuals marry, they become relatives to each other, and this bond extends to their
families, making parents, siblings, and other relatives related through the marriage.
Family of Orientation: This refers to the family one is born into.
Family of Procreation: This is the family formed when a person gets married.

Types of Kin:
1. Consanguineous Kin: Relatives connected by blood.
2. Affines: Relatives connected through marriage.

Try yourself:
What is the concept that refers to the undisputed political rule over a territory?
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

Work and Economic Life

Ques:- What is Work?

Work is often thought of as paid employment when we are children and students.
This is actually a simplified view.
Many types of work, like those in the informal economy, are not counted in official
employment statistics.
The informal economy includes transactions that occur outside regular employment,
often involving cash for services or the direct exchange of goods.
Work can be described as the performance of tasks that require mental and physical
effort, aimed at producing goods and services that meet human needs, whether they
are paid or unpaid.
Modern Work Forms and Labour Division

Pre-Modern Societies: In pre-modern societies, most individuals worked in agriculture or

animal husbandry. In countries like India, a significant portion of the population is still
engaged in rural-based occupations and agriculture.
Modern Economic Systems: Modern economies are characterised by a complex
division of labour. Work is divided into many specialised occupations, a stark contrast to
traditional societies where non-agricultural work often involves a specific craft.

Work and Industrialisation: Before industrialisation, work was mainly conducted at home
by all household members. The advent of industrial technology, such as coal-powered
machines and electricity, led to a separation of work from the home. Industrial
development centred around factories operated by capitalist entrepreneurs.

Specialised Employment: Individuals seeking employment in factories were trained to

perform specialised tasks and were compensated accordingly. This specialisation is a
key feature of modern society.

Economic Interdependence: Modern societies exhibit significant economic

interdependence. With few exceptions, most people do not produce their own food,
build their own homes, or make the goods they use.

Transformation of Work

Mass production is dependent on the existence of mass markets. The development of

the moving assembly line was one of the most important innovations in modern
industrial production. This type of production required expensive equipment and
continuous monitoring of employees using surveillance or monitoring systems.
In recent decades, there has been a move towards what is known as "flexible
production" and the "decentralisation of work." It is argued that in the era of
globalisation, increasing competition between firms and countries necessitates the
organisation of production to respond to changing market conditions.

Try yourself:Which form of marriage allows individuals to marry more than one partner
simultaneously?
[Link]
[Link]
[Link] monogamy
[Link] of the above

Politics

Political Institutions: Political institutions handle the distribution of power within a

society.
Power: Power is the ability of individuals or groups to achieve their goals despite
opposition from others. It often means that those in power benefit at the expense of
others. Power is relational, and the total amount of power in a society is fixed.

Authority: Authority is the use of power to enforce rules or make decisions. For instance,
a school principal has the authority to enforce discipline, while a political party president
has the authority to expel members. Authority is considered a legitimate and reasonable
form of power and is often institutionalised based on this legitimacy. People respect
those in authority because they believe their use of power is fair and just.

Stateless Societies
Empirical studies of stateless societies by social anthropologists over sixty years ago
showed how order is kept without modern government systems.
Instead, there was a balance between different groups; alliances formed through family
ties, marriage, and living arrangements; and ceremonies that included both friends and
enemies.
Rites and ceremonies that involve both friends and foes help maintain order.
Modern states have a fixed structure and formal procedures. However, do some of the
informal methods seen in stateless societies also exist in state societies?

The Concept of the State

A state is defined as a political system with a governing body (such as a parliament or
congress along with civil servants) that exercises authority over a specific area. This
authority is supported by legal frameworks and the ability to use military force to enforce
its rules.

Functionalist Perspective: This view holds that the state acts in the best interests of all
parts of society.

Conflict Perspective: This perspective argues that the state serves the interests of the
powerful segments of society.

Modern States: Modern states differ significantly from traditional ones. They are
characterised by sovereignty, citizenship, and often a strong sense of nationalism.

1. Sovereignty: Refers to the undisputed political rule over a territory.

2. Citizenship Rights: These rights include access to health services, unemployment

benefits, and minimum wage standards. Initially, citizenship did not guarantee political
rights. The expansion of social or welfare rights led to the creation of the welfare state in
Western nations after the Second World War, though these are less common in
developing countries and face challenges today.

[Link] Rights: These include freedoms related to movement, speech, religion, property,
and justice.
Political Rights: These pertain to the right to vote and hold public office.
Social Rights: These encompass economic support, such as health care and minimum
wage protections.

3. Nationalism: A sense of belonging to a political community (e.g., 'British' or 'Indian')

that emerged with the modern state.

Contemporary Issues with States:

The contemporary world features rapid global market expansion and intense nationalist
feelings and conflicts. Sociologists study the distribution of power not only in formal
government but also across parties, classes, castes, and communities based on factors
like race, language, and religion.

Try yourself:
What is the term used to describe the use of power to enforce rules or make decisions?
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

Religion

Study of Religion: Religion has long been a subject of study, with sociological findings
often differing from religious reflections.

Sacred and Profane: Sociologists, following Emile Durkheim, study the sacred realm,
which societies distinguish from the profane. The sacred often includes elements of the
supernatural, though some religions (e.g., early Buddhism, Confucianism) may not
conceive of the supernatural but still hold certain things as sacred.

Sociological Examination: Studying religion sociologically examined its relationship with

other social institutions and its impact on power and politics.

Historical Movements: Historically, there have been religious movements for social
change, addressing issues like caste and gender discrimination.
Public and Private: Religion is not only a private belief but also has a public character,
affecting other societal institutions.

Secularisation: Classical sociologists believed that with modernisation, religion would

become less influential, a process known as secularisation. However, contemporary
events show that religion still plays a significant role, challenging the notion of
secularisation.

Max Weber's Work: Max Weber's pioneering work links Calvinism to the rise of
capitalism, showing religion’s influence on economic behaviour and investment.

Influences on Religion: Religious norms influence and are influenced by social forces
such as politics, economics, and gender norms.

Women and Religion: The relationship between women and religion is an important
sociological question.

Integration with Society: Religion integrates with other societal parts and plays a central
role in traditional societies, often blending with material and artistic culture.

Sociological Methods: Sociology studies religion through empirical methods (observing

actual functioning), comparative methods (comparing all societies), and by relating
religious life to domestic, economic, and political life.

Common Characteristics: Religions share characteristics like symbols invoking

reverence, rituals or ceremonies, and a community of believers. Rituals vary but often
include praying, chanting, fasting, etc., and are distinct from everyday life. Religious
ceremonies are practised collectively in sacred places like churches, mosques, temples,
and shrines.

Sacred Realms: Sacred realms are approached with feelings of awe and respect, often
involving specific rituals (e.g., covering one's head, and specific dress codes).

Education

Education is a lifelong process involving both formal and informal [Link], the
focus is on school education.

Admission to school is crucial for many, serving as a gateway to higher education,

employment, and the acquisition of social skills.
Sociology views education as a transmission of group heritage, common to all societies,
with distinctions between simple societies and complex, modern societies.

In simple societies, education was informal, with children learning customs and life skills
through participation with adults.

Complex societies require formal education due to the economic division of labour,
separation of work from home, and the need for specialised learning.

In modern societies, education is formal and explicit due to abstract universalistic

values, as opposed to the particularistic values of simple societies.

Modern schools promote uniformity, standardised aspirations, and universalistic values.

Examples include a uniform dress for school children.

Emile Durkheim argued that society needs a common base of ideas, sentiments, and
practices that education must inculcate in all children, regardless of their social
category.

Education prepares children for specific occupations and helps them internalise the core
values of society. It maintains and renews the social structure and transmits culture.

According to functionalist sociologists, education also serves as a mechanism for the

selection and allocation of individuals into future societal roles and statuses based on
their abilities.

For sociologists who view society as unequally differentiated, education acts as a

stratifying agent and reflects social stratification.

Educational opportunities vary based on socio-economic background, leading to

differences in privileges and opportunities.

Privileged schooling can intensify the divide between the elite and the masses, affecting
confidence and opportunities.

Many children cannot attend school or drop out, which perpetuates inequality in
educational attainment and future opportunities.

Try yourself:
What function does education serve in modern societies according to sociologists?
[Link] group heritage
[Link] individualistic values
[Link] social structure
[Link] social stratification

Important terms

Citizen: An individual who is part of a political community, with both rights and
responsibilities associated with that membership.

Division of Labour: The specialisation of work tasks where different occupations are
integrated into a production system. While all societies have some form of division of
labour, industrialism greatly enhances this complexity, making it international in scope in
the modern world.

Gender: Socially defined expectations about appropriate behaviour for each sex,
serving as a fundamental organising principle in society.

Empirical Investigation: The process of factual inquiry conducted within a specific area
of sociological research.

Endogamy: The practice of marrying within a particular caste, class, or tribal group.

Exogamy: The practice of marrying outside a specific group of relations.

Ideology: Shared beliefs or ideas that justify the interests of dominant groups, prevalent
in societies with systemic inequalities. Ideologies are linked with power, as they
legitimise the unequal distribution of power among groups.

Legitimacy: The perception that a political system or order is just and valid.

Monogamy: A marital arrangement involving one husband and one wife exclusively.

Polygamy: A marital arrangement where an individual has more than one spouse
simultaneously.

Polyandry: A form of polygamy where one woman is married to multiple men.

Polygyny: A form of polygamy where one man is married to multiple women.

Service Industries: Sectors focused on producing services rather than goods, such as
the travel industry.
State Society: A society with a formal system of government institutions.

Stateless Society: A society without formal governmental institutions.

Social Mobility: The ability to move between different social statuses or occupations.

Sovereignty: The ultimate and uncontested political authority of a state over a defined
territorial area.