Unit 2: Introduction to Aerodynamics &

Elements of Airplane Performance

 Contents
• Introduction to Aerodynamics
• Aerodynamic forces on aircraft, Basic characteristics of aerofoils,
NACA nomenclature, Classification of NACA aerofoils,
propagation of sound, Mach number, subsonic, transonic,
supersonic, hypersonic flows.
• Elements of Airplane Performance
• Introduction, Equation of motion, Thrust required for level steady
flight, Thrust available and maximum velocity, Power required for
level steady flight, Power available and maximum velocity for
reciprocating engine – propeller combination and jet engine,
Altitude effect of power available and power required.
• Rate of climb, gliding flight, Absolute and Ceiling, Time of climb,
Range & Endurance for propeller driven and jet airplane.
The principle of flight is made up of four fundamental forces:
lift, weight, drag, and thrust. These forces work together in a
delicate balance to determine an aircraft’s trajectory, with lift and
weight opposing each other and thrust and drag doing the same.
• What is Bernoulli’s Principle of Flight?
• Bernoulli’s Principle is a fundamental concept in fluid dynamics that
explains how pressure and velocity are related in a fluid. But this also
relates directly to airflow.
• When air flows over a wing, it splits into two streams. One flows over
the wing’s curved upper surface, and the other flows underneath the
flat lower surface.
• According to Bernoulli’s Principle, as the air flows over the wing’s
curved upper surface, its velocity increases, and its pressure
decreases.
• This creates a region of lower pressure above and higher pressure
below the wing. This pressure difference generates an upward
force on the wing, known as lift, which allows the airplane to take
off and stay in the air.
• It’s fascinating to think that the simple act of air moving over the
curved surface of a wing can create enough lift to keep an airplane
airborne.
• What Are the Four Forces of Flight?
• Due to the four forces of flight, even planes
weighing hundreds of thousands of pounds can
work against the forces of gravity and fly through
the air. In 1799, English engineer, inventor, and
aviator George Cayley officially identified the four
forces of flight. The four forces of flight include:
• Drag: the force that acts in the opposite direction of
the plane and slows the plane down
• Lift: the upward force that allows an airplane to
stay in the air
• Thrust: the forward force that propels the plane
forward
• Weight: the downward force of gravity that pulls the
plane toward the ground
 Aerodynamic Terms
• Aerodynamics is the study of how
air and other gases move, and how
these movements affect objects
moving through them.
• It's a branch of physics that explores
the forces generated by airflow and
their impact on things like airplanes,
cars, and even projectiles.
• Key concepts include lift, drag,
thrust, and weight, which are the
fundamental forces in flight.
• Airfoil
• An airfoil (or aerofoil in British English) is the
specific cross-sectional shape of a wing, propeller
blade, turbine blade, or sail that’s carefully
designed to generate lift efficiently while
minimizing drag
Camber in an airfoil refers to the asymmetry between the upper and lower
surfaces, causing a curvature that is crucial for generating lift. It's essentially
the measure of this curvature, with the maximum distance between the mean
camber line and the chord line determining the camber value. Positive camber
(upper surface more curved than the lower) is common in airfoils, as it
increases lift and can reduce drag compared to symmetrical airfoils.
The camber line of an airfoil is an imaginary curve that lies halfway between
the airfoil's upper and lower surfaces. The camber line is the locus of points
equidistant from the upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil.
Camber is a crucial
design feature of airfoils
that significantly
influences lift, drag, stall
characteristics, and
overall aerodynamic
performance.
Engineers often
manipulate camber to
optimize airfoils for
specific applications,
such as gliders,
commercial aircraft, and
racing planes, to achieve
desired performance
characteristics.
"Compare the aerodynamic characteristics of symmetric and cambered airfoils with appropriate labelled sketches. Then, interpret the
NACA terms involved in the 4-digit series.
Feature Symmetric Airfoil Cambered Airfoil
Identical upper and lower Upper surface more curved than
Shape
surfaces the lower surface
Positive camber (asymmetric
Camber Zero camber
curvature)

Characteristic Symmetric Airfoil Cambered Airfoil

Lift at 0° AoA No lift Produces lift
May stall earlier depending on
Stall Characteristics Usually smoother, later stall
design
Center of Pressure Movement Minimal More pronounced
Moment Coefficient Zero pitching moment Non-zero pitching moment
Efficiency (Cl/Cd) Lower at low AoA Higher for cruise conditions

Usage Area Symmetric Airfoil Cambered Airfoil

Aircraft Type Aerobatic, supersonic jets Subsonic aircraft, gliders, UAVs
Control Surfaces Rudders, elevators Main wings
Less common due to unbalanced
Rotating Blades (e.g. fans) Common
loads
 Airfoil Geometry & Variations
• Thickness: Determines structural strength and influences stall behaviour.
• Leading/Trailing Edges: A rounded leading edge helps smooth airflow; a sharp
trailing edge helps the flow exit cleanly.
• Chord Line: The chord line is a straight line connecting the leading and trailing
edges of the airfoil.
• Many standardised families exist (like the NACA 4-, 6-, 7-, and 8-series), each
optimised for different flight regimes—from subsonic to transonic to supercritical
• Camber percentage in an airfoil refers to the maximum distance
of the camber line (the line halfway between the upper and lower
surfaces) from the chord line, expressed as a percentage of the
chord length. It
• Maximum Camber:
• The maximum camber is the greatest distance between the
camber line and the chord line.
• Camber Percentage:
• The camber percentage is the maximum camber divided by the
chord length, then multiplied by 100 to express it as a percentage.
• For example, in a NACA 4-digit airfoil series, the first digit
represents the maximum camber as a percentage of the chord. So,
a NACA 2412 airfoil has a maximum camber of 2% of the chord.
[Link]
 • Angle of Attack (α):
The angle between the chord line of the wing and the direction of
the relative airflow.

The angle of attack determines lift:

As AoA increases, lift increases up to a certain point.
•Beyond a critical angle of attack (usually around 15°–18° for many airfoils), the airflow
separates from the upper surface of the wing, leading to stall, a rapid loss of lift.
• The National Transportation
Safety Board (NTSB) found that
the airplane's center of gravity was
near or even aft of the airplane's
limit and the airplane's trim was
mis-set. Both resulted from cargo
loading irregularities.
• [Link]
h?v=5QPNu55zI7g
Lift: When a fluid flows around an object, the fluid exerts a force on the
object. Lift is the component of this force that is perpendicular to the oncoming
flow direction.
It contrasts with the drag force, which is the component of the force parallel to the
flow direction.
Lift conventionally acts in an upward direction in order to counter the force
of gravity, but it is defined to act perpendicular to the flow and therefore can act
in any direction.
• An aircraft is flying at a speed of 70 m/s at sea level (air density
ρ=1.225 kg/m3). The wing area is 16 m² and the coefficient of lift CL is
1.2. What is the lift force generated by the wings?
 The lift coefficient (CL)
The lift coefficient (CL) is a dimensionless
number that describes how effectively a body
(like an aircraft wing or airfoil) generates lift.
CL depends on: Typical range:
• Airfoil shape Flat plate: CL≈0.3−0.6
• Angle of attack (α\alpha) Cambered airfoil: CL≈1.0−1.5C
• Reynolds number High-lift configurations (flaps extended):
• Flap settings CL≈2.0−3.0
 The coefficient of lift (CL)
• It's a ratio of forces, so the units cancel
out, making it universally applicable
regardless of the size of the object or the
fluid's properties.
•Example:
• For a given wing and air conditions, a
higher CL means more lift is generated
for the same airspeed and wing area.
• The maximum lift coefficient (CL) max)
varies depending on the wing design
and can range from around 1.5 for a
simple airfoil to over 3.5 with advanced
high-lift devices like flaps and slats.
The image illustrates the basic Lift Curve (CL
vs. Angle of Attack α) for a wing section,
focusing on the critical angle of attack beyond
which stall occurs.
Graph Description:
X-axis: Angle of Attack (α), measured in
degrees.
Y-axis: Coefficient of Lift (CL), a dimensionless
measure of lift.
The orange curve shows a linear increase in lift
as angle of attack increases—up to a point.
Critical Angle of Attack
Marked by the dashed vertical line around 15°.
This is the point where the wing achieves
maximum lift (CLmax).
Beyond this angle, lift decreases sharply due to
airflow separation—this condition is called
stall.
[Link]
• Critical angle of attack (AOA) and stall. A stall is an aerodynamic
condition that occurs when smooth airflow over the airplane's wings is
disrupted, resulting in loss of lift. Stalls occur when the AOA reaches
the critical point which can vary between 16 and 20.
Lift coefficient : Lift depends on the size of the wing, being approximately
proportional to the wing area.
It is often convenient to quantify the lift of a given airfoil by its lift
coefficient CL , which defines its overall lift in terms of a unit area of the wing.
If the value of CL for a wing at a specified angle of attack is given, then the lift
produced for specific flow conditions can be determined.

Where:
•L = Lift force (Newtons, N)
•ρ = Air density (kg/m³)
•V= Velocity of the airflow relative to the object (m/s)
•S = Wing area or reference area (m²)
•CL = Coefficient of lift (dimensionless), which depends on the shape of the
airfoil and angle of attack
• An aircraft is flying at a steady level flight at an altitude where the air
density is ρ=1.0 kg/m3. The aircraft has: Wing area S=30 m2,
Aircraft weight W=72,000 N, True airspeed v=70 m/s. Assume the
aircraft is in steady level flight, so lift equals weight. Calculate the
lift coefficient CL
 Lift Augmentation Devices

[Link]
 Lift Augmentation Devices
• Lift Augmentation Devices are components or
mechanisms added to an aircraft wing to
increase the lift generated, especially during
low-speed conditions like takeoff and landing.
These devices allow the aircraft to fly safely at
lower speeds by either increasing the effective
camber, wing area, or delaying flow
separation.
• Types of Lift Augmentation Devices
• Broadly classified into two categories:
• Leading-edge devices – e.g., slats, slots.
• Trailing-edge devices – e.g., flaps (plain,
slotted, Fowler, etc.)
What are Lift Augmentation devices? Analyse any two of them with
a simple sketches and depict the change in lift on a CL vs α curve
where α is the Angle of attack, CL is the Lift Coefficient.
• 1. Slats
• Definition: Slats are movable
surfaces located on the leading edge
(front) of the wing.
• Function: They help to delay airflow
separation over the wing at high
angles of attack, which increases lift.
Slats can be extended to increase the
curvature of the wing.
• Use During Takeoff/Landing: Slats
are often deployed during takeoff
and landing to enhance lift and
improve stall characteristics.
• 2. Slots
• Definition: Slots are fixed
openings or gaps located on the
leading edge of the wing.
• Function: They allow high-
energy air from below the wing
to flow over the wing's upper
surface, which helps maintain lift
at lower speeds and higher angles
of attack.
• Use During Takeoff/Landing:
Slots are typically always present
and assist in maintaining lift
during takeoff and landing, but
they do not move like slats.
•Takeoff: Slats and flaps are
typically deployed to enhance lift
for a safe ascent.

•Landing: Both slats and flaps are

deployed to maintain lift at lower
speeds, allowing for a controlled
approach and landing.
• 3. Flaps
• Definition: Flaps are movable
surfaces located on the trailing
edge (back) of the wing.
• Function: They increase the
wing's lift by increasing the
wing's surface area and camber
(curvature) when extended. Flaps
can also increase drag, which is
useful for slowing down the
aircraft during landing.
• Use During Takeoff/Landing:
Flaps are commonly deployed
during takeoff and landing to
increase lift at lower speeds and
assist in controlled descents.
Comparing Slats with Other High-Lift Devices
 Airplane Control Surfaces: Ailerons, Rudder, Elevators,
Spoilers, Flaps, and Slats
Ailerons
- Purpose: Control roll.
- Location: Outer edges of the wings.
- Function: Move in opposite directions to tilt the plane's wings.
Rudder
- Purpose: Control yaw.
- Location: Vertical stabilizer (tail fin).
- Function: Moves left or right to steer the plane left or right.
Elevators
- Purpose: Control pitch.
- Location: Horizontal stabilizer (tailplane).
- Function: Move up or down to make the nose of the plane go up or
down.
Spoilers
- Purpose: Reduce lift and increase drag.
- Location: Top surface of the wings.
- Function: Deploy upwards to disrupt airflow over the wing.
Flaps
- Purpose: Increase lift at lower speeds.
- Location: Trailing edge of the wings.
- Function: Extend downwards to increase wing area and curvature.
Slats
- Purpose: Increase lift at lower speeds.
- Location: Leading edge of the wings.
- Function: Extend forward to smooth airflow over the wing at high
angles of attack.
• Slats and flaps are high-lift devices used on the wings of aircraft to
enhance lift, particularly during low-speed flight phases such as takeoff
and landing. Their effects on the lift curve can be summarized as
follows:
• Effects of Slats
• Increased Angle of Attack (AoA) Range: Slats increase the maximum
angle of attack before stall. This allows the aircraft to operate safely at
higher angles of attack without losing lift.
• Delayed Stall: By energizing the airflow over the wing, slats help delay
airflow separation, thus postponing stall and allowing for a more
gradual loss of lift.
• Lift Coefficient Increase: The presence of slats increases the lift
coefficient (Cl) at a given angle of attack, shifting the lift curve upwards.
This means that for the same angle of attack, the aircraft generates more
lift.
• Improved Stall Characteristics:- Slats improve the stall characteristics by
maintaining lift over a broader range of angles, contributing to safer
handling.
• Effects of Flaps
• Significant Lift Increase: Flaps increase the lift coefficient significantly more
than slats, especially at lower speeds. This is crucial during takeoff and landing
phases.
• Lower Stall Speed: By increasing lift at lower speeds, flaps reduce the stall
speed, allowing the aircraft to operate safely at slower speeds during critical
phases of flight.
• Change in Lift Curve Slope:- With flaps deployed, the slope of the lift curve
(dCl/dAoA) typically increases, indicating that the aircraft can generate more
lift for a given increase in angle of attack.
• Altered Pitching Moment:- Deployment of flaps often results in a nose-up
pitching moment, which pilots must manage during operation. This affects
control and stability, particularly during approach and landing.
• Combined Effects
• Enhanced Performance: When both slats and flaps are used together, they
provide a synergistic effect, further increasing lift and enhancing the aircraft's
low-speed performance.
• Lift Curve Shift: The combined deployment of slats and flaps shifts the entire
lift curve upward and to the left, meaning higher lift at lower angles of attack
and reduced stall speed
 Slats to operate at
higher angles of attack
The slats themselves create a higher lift coefficient.
So, when they are deployed the pressure profile over
the wing surface is much more flatter.
Here there is no high suction peak near the leading
edge found in a wing without slats. Thus the
boundary layer do not have the danger of facing a
powerful adverse pressure gradient allowing the
layer to maintain its high energy state over the whole
wing surface.
The result is that the aircraft is able operate at higher
angles of attack without significant flow separation.
Slats can push up the stalling angle (critical angle of
attack) from around 16 degrees to over 25 degrees.

What is Stall? How can it be controlled? Explain with a graph how stall can be avoided with the implementation of slats
• Effect of Lift Augmentation Devices on CL vs α Curve
• The figure illustrates the impact of lift augmentation devices—specifically leading-edge slats and trailing-edge
double slotted flaps—on the lift characteristics of an aircraft wing.
• Clean Configuration (Red Curve):
• Represents the wing in cruise condition, without any high-lift devices deployed.
• The stall occurs at a relatively lower angle of attack (~12°) and a CLmax of about 1.5.
• Suitable for high-speed, low-drag cruise flight.
• Takeoff Configuration (Blue Curve):
• Slats and single/slotted flaps are partially deployed.
• The curve shifts upward and slightly rightward, increasing CLmax to ~2.1.
• Stall angle also increases (~10° → 15°), improving low-speed performance during takeoff.
• Landing Configuration (Green Curve):
• Both slats and double slotted flaps are fully deployed.
• Significant increase in both lift and stall angle:
• CLmax ~3.0
• Stall angle > 20°
• Allows for lower landing speeds and safer, more controlled descent.
 • Why does the lift coefficient of
an airfoil rise with the
maximum camber?
• A positively cambered airfoil
will create lift even at zero
angle of attack as its shape is
able to accelerate the air.
• But a symmetrical airfoil will
always need a positive angle of
attack to create lift.
As you can see from the graph above, the angle at which the cambered airfoil stops creating lift is in the negative (x-
axis=Angle of attack, y=Coefficient of Lift). The point marked Clmax is the point where the airfoil stalls. Cambered airfoil
as you can see stalls at a higher lift coefficient, i.e. it is able to give out more lift before it dies out. From the graph it is quite
clear that a cambered airfoil creates more lift at a given angle of attack than a non cambered symmetrical one. So, cambered
airfoils we can say are more efficient at creating lift.
 NACA Nomenclature

NACA nomenclature refers to the

system used by the National
Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics (NACA) to classify
and designate airfoils based on
their geometric properties.
The most common series is the
four-digit series, where the
numbers indicate maximum
camber, the location of maximum
camber, and maximum thickness.
• A NACA 2412 airfoil is used on a small aircraft wing.
(a) Explain the meaning of each digit in the NACA 2412 nomenclature.
(b) Sketch the camber line and label the maximum camber and thickness.
• The NACA 2412 is part of the 4-digit airfoil series developed by the National
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The digits represent specific
geometric properties of the airfoil:
Digit Meaning For NACA 2412
1st Digit Maximum camber as % of chord 2% of chord
Location of maximum camber
2nd Digit 4 × 10% = 40% of chord
(as 1/10 of chord)
Maximum thickness (as % of
3rd & 4th Digits 12% of chord
chord)
•NACA 2412 has a 2% maximum camber, located at 40% of the chord length
from the leading edge.
•The maximum thickness of the airfoil is 12% of the chord at 30 % distance
from the leading edge
• Tip for Students Drawing the Sketch:
• Use graph paper.
• Mark the chord length as 100 mm for simplicity.
• Plot the camber peak at 40 mm from the leading edge and 2 mm above the
chord line.
• Draw the airfoil thickness distribution symmetrically about the camber line
with max thickness of 12 mm.
 Mach number

Mach number is a dimensionless

number used to compare the speed of
any object with the speed of sound.
Generally, the Mach number is
represented with the symbol ‘M’.

Mach Number = [Speed of object]

[Speed of sound]

An F/A-18 Hornet creating a vapor cone at

transonic speed just before reaching the
speed of sound.
• Mach number (M)= True Airspeed (TAS) / Speed of Sound (a)
• This means Mach 1 is the speed of sound, Mach 0.5 is half the speed of sound, Mach 2 is
twice the speed of sound, and so on.
• Speed of sound in dry air at 20 °C = 343 m / s
• A commercial jet is cruising at a speed of 250 m/s at an altitude where the
speed of sound is 340 m/s.
Calculate the Mach number, and state whether the flight is subsonic,
transonic, or supersonic.
0.735
Example:
An aircraft is flying at a speed of 340 m/s at an altitude where the speed of
sound is 300 m/s.
Calculate the Mach number.
Mach number (M)=Object speed (V)/ Speed of sound (a) ​ 1.13

Flow Regime Mach Number Applications in Aircraft

Subsonic M < 0.8 Commercial aircraft, drones

High-speed jets, performance-critical
Transonic 0.8 < M < 1.2
aircraft
Fighters, supersonic transports (e.g.,
Supersonic 1.2 < M < 5
Concorde)

Hypersonic M>5 Space vehicles, advanced missiles

1. Draw a typical aerofoil and explain the terms involved in it. Compare the aerodynamic characteristics
of symmetric and cambered airfoils.
2. Define an aerofoil. Elucidate the different types of aerofoil with appropriate sketches.
3. What is Stall? How can it be controlled? Explain with a graph how the stall implementation of slat can
improve stall issues. What typically happens when an aircraft exceeds the critical angle of attack?
4. "Define the Lift Coefficient (CL) and angle of attack. Explain its role in airfoil performance.
5. Elucidate in detail about the NACA four-digit system of nomenclature with a suitable example.
6. A NACA 2412 airfoil is used on a small aircraft wing.(a) Explain the meaning of each digit in the NACA
2412 nomenclature.(b) Sketch the camber line and label the maximum camber and thickness.
7. What are Lift Augmentation devices? Analyse any two of them with a simple sketches and depict the
change in lift on a CL vs α curve where α is the Angle of attack, CL is the Lift Coefficient. Show
graphically how salts improve the angle of attack.