Computer

Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ref Page Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 1/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about:

§ Computer
§ Data processing
§ Characteristic features of computers
§ Computers’ evolution to their present form
§ Computer generations
§ Characteristic features of each computer generation

Ref Page 01 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 2/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Computer

§ The word computer comes from the word “compute”,

which means, “to calculate”

§ Thereby, a computer is an electronic device that can

perform arithmetic operations at high speed

§ A computer is also called a data processor because it can

store, process, and retrieve data whenever desired

Ref Page 01 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 3/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Data Processing

The activity of processing data using a computer is called

data processing
Data

Capture Data

Manipulate Data

Output Results

Information
Data is raw material used as input and information is
processed data obtained as output of data processing

Ref Page 01 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 4/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Characteristics of Computers

1) Automatic: Given a job, computer can work on it

automatically without human interventions

2) Speed: Computer can perform data processing jobs

very fast, usually measured in microseconds (10-6),
nanoseconds (10-9), and picoseconds (10-12)

3) Accuracy: Accuracy of a computer is consistently high

and the degree of its accuracy depends upon its design.
Computer errors caused due to incorrect input data or
unreliable programs are often referred to as Garbage-
In-Garbage-Out (GIGO)

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 02 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 5/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Characteristics of Computers
(Continued from previous slide..)

4) Diligence: Computer is free from monotony, tiredness,

and lack of concentration. It can continuously work for
hours without creating any error and without grumbling

5) Versatility: Computer is capable of performing almost

any task, if the task can be reduced to a finite series of
logical steps

6) Power of Remembering: Computer can store and

recall any amount of information because of its
secondary storage capability. It forgets or looses certain
information only when it is asked to do so

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 02 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 6/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Characteristics of Computers
(Continued from previous slide..)

7) No I.Q.: A computer does only what it is programmed

to do. It cannot take its own decision in this regard

8) No Feelings: Computers are devoid of emotions. Their

judgement is based on the instructions given to them in
the form of programs that are written by us (human
beings)

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 03 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 7/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Evolution of Computers

§ Blaise Pascal invented the first mechanical adding

machine in 1642
§ Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz invented the first
calculator for multiplication in 1671
§ Keyboard machines originated in the United States
around 1880
§ Around 1880, Herman Hollerith came up with the concept
of punched cards that were extensively used as input
media until late 1970s

Ref Page 03 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 8/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Evolution of Computers
(Continued from previous slide..)

§ Charles Babbage is considered to be the father of

modern digital computers

§ He designed “Difference Engine” in 1822

§ He designed a fully automatic analytical engine in

1842 for performing basic arithmetic functions

§ His efforts established a number of principles that

are fundamental to the design of any digital
computer

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 03 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 9/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Some Well Known Early Computers

§ The Mark I Computer (1937-44)

§ The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (1939-42)
§ The ENIAC (1943-46)
§ The EDVAC (1946-52)
§ The EDSAC (1947-49)
§ Manchester Mark I (1948)
§ The UNIVAC I (1951)

Ref Page 03 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 10/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Computer Generations

§ “Generation” in computer talk is a step in technology. It

provides a framework for the growth of computer industry

§ Originally it was used to distinguish between various

hardware technologies, but now it has been extended to
include both hardware and software

§ Till today, there are five computer generations

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 05 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 11/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Computer Generations
(Continued from previous slide..)

Key hardware Key software Key Some

Generation
representative
(Period) technologies technologies characteristics systems

First § Vacuum tubes § Machine and § Bulky in size § ENIAC

(1942-1955) § Electromagnetic assembly § Highly unreliable § EDVAC
relay memory languages § Limited commercial § EDSAC
§ Punched cards § Stored program use and costly § UNIVAC I
secondary storage concept § Difficult commercial § IBM 701
§ Mostly scientific production
applications § Difficult to use
Second § Transistors § Batch operating § Faster, smaller, more § Honeywell 400
(1955-1964) § Magnetic cores system reliable and easier to § IBM 7030
memory § High-level program than previous § CDC 1604
§ Magnetic tapes programming generation systems
§ UNIVAC LARC
§ Disks for secondary languages § Commercial production
storage § Scientific and was still difficult and
commercial costly
applications

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 12/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Computer Generations
(Continued from previous slide..)

Generation Key hardware Key software Key Some rep.

(Period) technologies technologies characteristics systems

Third § ICs with SSI and § Timesharing § Faster, smaller, more § IBM 360/370
(1964-1975) MSI technologies operating reliable, easier and § PDP-8
§ Larger magnetic system cheaper to produce § PDP-11
cores memory § Standardization § Commercially, easier § CDC 6600
§ Larger capacity of high-level to use, and easier to
disks and programming upgrade than
magnetic tapes languages previous generation
secondary § Unbundling of systems
storage software from § Scientific, commercial
§ Minicomputers; hardware and interactive on-
upward line applications
compatible family
of computers

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 13/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Computer Generations
(Continued from previous slide..)

Generation Key hardware Key software Key Some rep.

(Period) Technologies technologies characteristics systems

Fourth § ICs with VLSI § Operating systems for § Small, affordable, § IBM PC and
(1975-1989) technology PCs with GUI and reliable, and easy its clones
§ Microprocessors; multiple windows on a to use PCs § Apple II
semiconductor memory single terminal screen § More powerful § TRS-80
§ Larger capacity hard § Multiprocessing OS and reliable § VAX 9000
disks as in-built with concurrent mainframe
programming systems and § CRAY-1
secondary storage
languages supercomputers § CRAY-2
§ Magnetic tapes and
floppy disks as portable § UNIX operating system § Totally general § CRAY-X/MP
storage media with C programming purpose machines
§ Personal computers language § Easier to produce
§ Supercomputers based § Object-oriented design commercially
on parallel vector and programming § Easier to upgrade
processing and § PC, Network-based, § Rapid software
symmetric and supercomputing development
multiprocessing applications possible
technologies
§ Spread of high-speed
computer networks

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 14/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Computer Generations
(Continued from previous slide..)

Generation Key hardware Key software Key Some rep.

(Period) technologies technologies characteristics systems

Fifth § ICs with ULSI § Micro-kernel based, § Portable computers § IBM notebooks
(1989- technology multithreading, § Powerful, cheaper, § Pentium PCs
Present) § Larger capacity distributed OS reliable, and easier § SUN
main memory, § Parallel to use desktop Workstations
hard disks with programming machines § IBM SP/2
RAID support libraries like MPI & § Powerful
PVM § SGI Origin 2000
§ Optical disks as supercomputers
portable read-only § JAVA § PARAM 10000
§ High uptime due to
storage media § World Wide Web hot-pluggable
§ Notebooks, § Multimedia, components
powerful desktop Internet § Totally general
PCs and applications purpose machines
workstations § More complex § Easier to produce
§ Powerful servers, supercomputing commercially,
supercomputers applications easier to upgrade
§ Internet § Rapid software
§ Cluster computing development
possible

Ref Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 15/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Electronic
Electronic Devices
Devices Used
Used in
in Computers
Computers of
of Different
Different Generations
Generations

(a) A Vacuum Tube (b) A Transistor (c) An IC Chip

Ref Page 07 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 16/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key Words/Phrases

§ Computer § Integrated Circuit (IC)

§ Computer generations § Large Scale Integration (VLSI)
§ Computer Supported Cooperative § Medium Scale Integration (MSI)
Working (CSCW) § Microprocessor
§ Data § Personal Computer (PC)
§ Data processing § Second-generation computers
§ Data processor § Small Scale Integration (SSI)
§ First-generation computers § Stored program concept
§ Fourth-generation computers § Third-generation computers
§ Garbage-in-garbage-out (GIGO) § Transistor
§ Graphical User Interface (GUI) § Ultra Large Scale Integration
§ Groupware (ULSI)
§ Information § Vacuum tubes

Ref Page 12 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 17/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ref. Page Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 1/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about:

§ Basic operations performed by all types of computer
systems
§ Basic organization of a computer system
§ Input unit and its functions
§ Output unit and its functions
§ Storage unit and its functions
§ Types of storage used in a computer system

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 15 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 2/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives
(Continued from previous slide..)

§ Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

§ Control Unit (CU)

§ Central Processing Unit (CPU)

§ Computer as a system

Ref. Page 15 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 3/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

The Five Basic Operations of a Computer System

§ Inputting. The process of entering data and instructions

into the computer system

§ Storing. Saving data and instructions to make them

readily available for initial or additional processing
whenever required

§ Processing. Performing arithmetic operations (add,

subtract, multiply, divide, etc.) or logical operations
(comparisons like equal to, less than, greater than, etc.)
on data to convert them into useful information

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 15 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 4/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

The Five Basic Operations of a Computer System

§ Outputting. The process of producing useful information

or results for the user such as a printed report or visual
display

§ Controlling. Directing the manner and sequence in which

all of the above operations are performed

Ref. Page 15 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 5/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Basic Organization of a Computer System

Storage Unit

Secondary
Storage

Program Input Output Information

and Unit Unit (Results)
Data Primary
Storage

Control
Unit
Indicates flow of
instructions and data
Arithmetic Indicates the control
Logic Unit exercised by the
control unit
Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Ref. Page 16 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 6/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Input Unit

An input unit of a computer system performs the

following functions:

1. It accepts (or reads) instructions and data from outside

world
2. It converts these instructions and data in computer
acceptable form
3. It supplies the converted instructions and data to the
computer system for further processing

Ref. Page 16 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 7/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Output Unit

An output unit of a computer system performs the

following functions:

1. It accepts the results produced by the computer, which

are in coded form and hence, cannot be easily
understood by us
2. It converts these coded results to human acceptable
(readable) form
3. It supplies the converted results to outside world

Ref. Page 16 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 8/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Storage Unit

The storage unit of a computer system holds (or stores)

the following :

1. Data and instructions required for processing (received

from input devices)
2. Intermediate results of processing
3. Final results of processing, before they are released to
an output device

Ref. Page 17 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 9/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Two Types of Storage

§ Primary storage

§ Used to hold running program instructions

§ Used to hold data, intermediate results, and
results of ongoing processing of job(s)
§ Fast in operation
§ Small Capacity
§ Expensive
§ Volatile (looses data on power dissipation)

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 17 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 10/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Two Types of Storage

(Continued from previous slide..)

§ Secondary storage

§ Used to hold stored program instructions

§ Used to hold data and information of stored jobs
§ Slower than primary storage
§ Large Capacity
§ Lot cheaper that primary storage
§ Retains data even without power

Ref. Page 17 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 11/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Arithmetic Logic Unit of a computer system is the place

where the actual executions of instructions takes place during
processing operation

Ref. Page 18 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 12/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Control Unit (CU)

Control Unit of a computer system manages and coordinates

the operations of all other components of the computer
system

Ref. Page 18 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 13/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Arithmetic Central
Logic Unit Control Unit = Processing
+ (CU)
(ALU) Unit (CPU)

§ It is the brain of a computer system

§ It is responsible for controlling the operations of

all other units of a computer system

Ref. Page 18 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 14/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

The System Concept

A system has following three characteristics:

1. A system has more than one element

2. All elements of a system are logically related
3. All elements of a system are controlled in a manner to
achieve the system goal

A computer is a system as it comprises of integrated

components (input unit, output unit, storage unit, and CPU)
that work together to perform the steps called for in the
executing program

Ref. Page 18 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 15/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key Words/Phrases

§ Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) § Output interface

§ Auxiliary storage § Output unit
§ Central Processing Unit (CPU) § Outputting
§ Computer system § Primate storage
§ Control Unit (CU) § Processing
§ Controlling § Secondary storage
§ Input interface § Storage unit
§ Input unit § Storing
§ Inputting § System
§ Main memory

Ref. Page 19 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 16/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ref Page Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 1/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about:

§ Non-positional number system

§ Positional number system
§ Decimal number system
§ Binary number system
§ Octal number system
§ Hexadecimal number system

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 20 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 2/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives
(Continued from previous slide..)

§ Convert a number’s base

§ Another base to decimal base
§ Decimal base to another base
§ Some base to another base
§ Shortcut methods for converting
§ Binary to octal number
§ Octal to binary number
§ Binary to hexadecimal number
§ Hexadecimal to binary number
§ Fractional numbers in binary number system

Ref Page 20 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 3/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Number Systems

Two types of number systems are:

§ Non-positional number systems

§ Positional number systems

Ref Page 20 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 4/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Non-positional Number Systems

§ Characteristics
§ Use symbols such as I for 1, II for 2, III for 3, IIII
for 4, IIIII for 5, etc
§ Each symbol represents the same value regardless
of its position in the number
§ The symbols are simply added to find out the value
of a particular number

§ Difficulty
§ It is difficult to perform arithmetic with such a
number system

Ref Page 20 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 5/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Positional Number Systems

§ Characteristics

§ Use only a few symbols called digits

§ These symbols represent different values depending

on the position they occupy in the number

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 20 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 6/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Positional Number Systems

(Continued from previous slide..)

§ The value of each digit is determined by:

1. The digit itself
2. The position of the digit in the number
3. The base of the number system

(base = total number of digits in the number

system)

§ The maximum value of a single digit is

always equal to one less than the value of
the base

Ref Page 21 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 7/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Decimal Number System

Characteristics
§ A positional number system
§ Has 10 symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9). Hence, its base = 10
§ The maximum value of a single digit is 9 (one
less than the value of the base)
§ Each position of a digit represents a specific
power of the base (10)
§ We use this number system in our day-to-day
life

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 21 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 8/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Decimal Number System

(Continued from previous slide..)

Example

258610 = (2 x 103) + (5 x 102) + (8 x 101) + (6 x 100)

= 2000 + 500 + 80 + 6

Ref Page 21 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 9/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Binary Number System

Characteristics
§ A positional number system
§ Has only 2 symbols or digits (0 and 1). Hence its
base = 2
§ The maximum value of a single digit is 1 (one less
than the value of the base)
§ Each position of a digit represents a specific power
of the base (2)
§ This number system is used in computers

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 21 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 10/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Binary Number System

(Continued from previous slide..)

Example

101012 = (1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) x (1 x 20)

= 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1

= 2110

Ref Page 21 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 11/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Representing Numbers in Different Number
Systems

In order to be specific about which number system we

are referring to, it is a common practice to indicate the
base as a subscript. Thus, we write:

101012 = 2110

Ref Page 21 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 12/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Bit

§ Bit stands for binary digit

§ A bit in computer terminology means either a 0 or a 1

§ A binary number consisting of n bits is called an n-bit

number

Ref Page 22 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 13/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Octal Number System

Characteristics
§ A positional number system
§ Has total 8 symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7).
Hence, its base = 8
§ The maximum value of a single digit is 7 (one less
than the value of the base
§ Each position of a digit represents a specific power of
the base (8)

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 22 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 14/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Octal Number System

(Continued from previous slide..)

§ Since there are only 8 digits, 3 bits (23 = 8) are

sufficient to represent any octal number in binary

Example

20578 = (2 x 83) + (0 x 82) + (5 x 81) + (7 x 80)

= 1024 + 0 + 40 + 7

= 107110

Ref Page 22 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 15/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Hexadecimal Number System

Characteristics
§ A positional number system
§ Has total 16 symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F). Hence its base = 16
§ The symbols A, B, C, D, E and F represent the
decimal values 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15
respectively
§ The maximum value of a single digit is 15 (one less
than the value of the base)

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 22 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 16/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Hexadecimal Number System

(Continued from previous slide..)

§ Each position of a digit represents a specific power

of the base (16)
§ Since there are only 16 digits, 4 bits (24 = 16) are
sufficient to represent any hexadecimal number in
binary

Example
1AF16 = (1 x 162) + (A x 161) + (F x 160)
= 1 x 256 + 10 x 16 + 15 x 1
= 256 + 160 + 15
= 43110

Ref Page 22 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 17/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Converting a Number of Another Base to a

Decimal Number

Method

Step 1: Determine the column (positional) value of

each digit

Step 2: Multiply the obtained column values by the

digits in the corresponding columns

Step 3: Calculate the sum of these products

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 23 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 18/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Converting a Number of Another Base to a

Decimal Number
(Continued from previous slide..)

Example
47068 = ?10
Common
values
multiplied
47068 = 4 x 83 + 7 x 82 + 0 x 81 + 6 x 80 by the
corresponding
= 4 x 512 + 7 x 64 + 0 + 6 x 1 digits
= 2048 + 448 + 0 + 6 Sum of these
products
= 250210

Ref Page 23 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 19/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Converting a Decimal Number to a Number of

Another Base

Division-Remainder Method
Step 1: Divide the decimal number to be converted by
the value of the new base

Step 2: Record the remainder from Step 1 as the

rightmost digit (least significant digit) of the
new base number

Step 3: Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the

new base

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 25 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 20/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Converting a Decimal Number to a Number of

Another Base
(Continued from previous slide..)

Step 4: Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next

digit (to the left) of the new base number

Repeat Steps 3 and 4, recording remainders from right to

left, until the quotient becomes zero in Step 3

Note that the last remainder thus obtained will be the most
significant digit (MSD) of the new base number

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 25 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 21/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Converting a Decimal Number to a Number of

Another Base
(Continued from previous slide..)

Example
95210 = ?8

Solution:
8 952 Remainder
119 s 0
14 7
1 6
0 1

Hence, 95210 = 16708

Ref Page 26 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 22/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Converting a Number of Some Base to a Number

of Another Base

Method

Step 1: Convert the original number to a decimal

number (base 10)

Step 2: Convert the decimal number so obtained to

the new base number

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 27 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 23/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Converting a Number of Some Base to a Number

of Another Base
(Continued from previous slide..)

Example
5456 = ?4

Solution:
Step 1: Convert from base 6 to base 10

5456 = 5 x 62 + 4 x 61 + 5 x 60
= 5 x 36 + 4 x 6 + 5 x 1
= 180 + 24 + 5
= 20910

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 27 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 24/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Converting a Number of Some Base to a Number

of Another Base
(Continued from previous slide..)

Step 2: Convert 20910 to base 4

4 209 Remainders
52 1
13 0
3 1
0 3

Hence, 20910 = 31014

So, 5456 = 20910 = 31014

Thus, 5456 = 31014

Ref Page 28 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 25/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Shortcut Method for Converting a Binary Number

to its Equivalent Octal Number

Method
Step 1: Divide the digits into groups of three starting
from the right

Step 2: Convert each group of three binary digits to

one octal digit using the method of binary to
decimal conversion

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 29 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 26/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Shortcut Method for Converting a Binary Number

to its Equivalent Octal Number
(Continued from previous slide..)

Example
11010102 = ?8

Step 1: Divide the binary digits into groups of 3 starting

from right

001 101 010

Step 2: Convert each group into one octal digit

0012 = 0 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20 = 1
1012 = 1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20 = 5
0102 = 0 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 0 x 20 = 2

Hence, 11010102 = 1528

Ref Page 29 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 27/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Shortcut Method for Converting an Octal

Number to Its Equivalent Binary Number

Method
Step 1: Convert each octal digit to a 3 digit binary
number (the octal digits may be treated as
decimal for this conversion)

Step 2: Combine all the resulting binary groups

(of 3 digits each) into a single binary
number

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 30 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 28/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Shortcut Method for Converting an Octal

Number to Its Equivalent Binary Number
(Continued from previous slide..)

Example
5628 = ?2

Step 1: Convert each octal digit to 3 binary digits

58 = 1012, 68 = 1102, 28 = 0102

Step 2: Combine the binary groups

5628 = 101 110 010
5 6 2

Hence, 5628 = 1011100102

Ref Page 30 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 29/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Shortcut Method for Converting a Binary

Number to its Equivalent Hexadecimal Number

Method

Step 1: Divide the binary digits into groups of four

starting from the right

Step 2: Combine each group of four binary digits to

one hexadecimal digit

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 30 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 30/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Shortcut Method for Converting a Binary

Number to its Equivalent Hexadecimal Number
(Continued from previous slide..)

Example

1111012 = ?16

Step 1: Divide the binary digits into groups of four

starting from the right

0011 1101

Step 2: Convert each group into a hexadecimal digit

00112 = 0 x 23 + 0 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 1 x 20 = 310 = 316
11012 = 1 x 23 + 1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20 = 310 = D16

Hence, 1111012 = 3D16

Ref Page 31 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 31/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Shortcut Method for Converting a Hexadecimal

Number to its Equivalent Binary Number

Method

Step 1: Convert the decimal equivalent of each

hexadecimal digit to a 4 digit binary
number

Step 2: Combine all the resulting binary groups

(of 4 digits each) in a single binary number

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 31 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 32/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Shortcut Method for Converting a Hexadecimal

Number to its Equivalent Binary Number
(Continued from previous slide..)

Example

2AB16 = ?2

Step 1: Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4 digit

binary number

216 = 210 = 00102

A16 = 1010 = 10102
B16 = 1110 = 10112

Ref Page 32 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 33/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Shortcut Method for Converting a Hexadecimal

Number to its Equivalent Binary Number
(Continued from previous slide..)

Step 2: Combine the binary groups

2AB16 = 0010 1010 1011
2 A B

Hence, 2AB16 = 0010101010112

Ref Page 32 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 34/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Fractional Numbers

Fractional numbers are formed same way as decimal

number system
In general, a number in a number system with base b
would be written as:
an an-1… a0 . a-1 a-2 … a-m

And would be interpreted to mean:

an x bn + an-1 x bn-1 + … + a0 x b0 + a-1 x b-1 + a-2 x b-2 +
… + a-m x b-m

The symbols an, an-1, …, a-m in above representation

should be one of the b symbols allowed in the number
system

Ref Page 33 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 35/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Formation of Fractional Numbers in

Binary Number System (Example)

Binary Point

Position 4 3 2 1 0 . -1 -2 -3 -4

Position Value 24 23 22 21 20 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4

Quantity 16 8 4 2 1 1/
2
1/
4
1/
8
1/
16
Represented

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 33 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 36/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Formation of Fractional Numbers in

Binary Number System (Example)
(Continued from previous slide..)

Example

110.1012 = 1 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 0 x 20 + 1 x 2-1 + 0 x 2-2 + 1 x 2-3

= 4 + 2 + 0 + 0.5 + 0 + 0.125
= 6.62510

Ref Page 33 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 37/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Formation of Fractional Numbers in

Octal Number System (Example)

Octal Point

Position 3 2 1 0 . -1 -2 -3

Position Value 83 82 81 80 8-1 8-2 8-3

Quantity 512 64 8 1 1/
8
1/
64
1/
512
Represented

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 33 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 38/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Formation of Fractional Numbers in

Octal Number System (Example)
(Continued from previous slide..)

Example

127.548 = 1 x 82 + 2 x 81 + 7 x 80 + 5 x 8-1 + 4 x 8-2

= 64 + 16 + 7 + 5/8 + 4/64
= 87 + 0.625 + 0.0625
= 87.687510

Ref Page 33 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 39/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ref Page Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 1/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about:

§ Internal structure of processor

§ Memory structure
§ Determining the speed of a processor
§ Different types of processors available
§ Determining the capacity of a memory
§ Different types of memory available
§ Several other terms related to the processor and
main memory of a computer system

Ref Page 101 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 2/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Basic Processor & Memory Architecture

of a Computer System
ROM PROM Flash
Main Memory (RAM)

Cache
Memory

Accumulato
Decode r register
r I/
Program General- O
control register purpose register
D
Instruction General- E
register purpose V
register I
Memory
address register C
E
Memory buffer
S
register
Input/Output
register
General- General-purpose
purpose register register

Control Unit Arithmetic Logic Unit

Central Processing Unit

Ref Page 102 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 3/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

§ The brain of a computer system

§ Performs all major calculations and comparisons
§ Activates and controls the operations of other units of a
computer system
§ Two basic components are
§ Control Unit (CU)
§ Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

§ No other single component of a computer determines

its overall performance as much as the CPU

Ref Page 101 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 4/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Control Unit (CU)

§ One of the two basic components of CPU

§ Acts as the central nervous system of a computer
system
§ Selects and interprets program instructions, and
coordinates execution
§ Has some special purpose registers and a decoder to
perform these activities

Ref Page 101 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 5/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

§ One of the two basic components of CPU.

§ Actual execution of instructions takes place in ALU
§ Has some special purpose registers
§ Has necessary circuitry to carry out all the
arithmetic and logic operations included in the CPU
instruction set

Ref Page 103 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 6/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Instruction Set

§ CPU has built-in ability to execute a particular set of machine

instructions, called its instruction set
§ Most CPUs have 200 or more instructions (such as add,
subtract, compare, etc.) in their instruction set
§ CPUs made by different manufacturers have different
instruction sets
§ Manufacturers tend to group their CPUs into “families” having
similar instruction sets
§ New CPU whose instruction set includes instruction set of its
predecessor CPU is said to be backward compatible with its
predecessor

Ref Page 103 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 7/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Registers

§ Special memory units, called registers, are used to

hold information on a temporary basis as the
instructions are interpreted and executed by the CPU
§ Registers are part of the CPU (not main memory) of a
computer
§ The length of a register, sometimes called its word
size, equals the number of bits it can store
§ With all other parameters being the same, a CPU with
32-bit registers can process data twice larger than
one with 16-bit registers

Ref Page 103 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 8/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Functions of Commonly Used Registers

Sr.
Name of Register Function
No.
Holds address of the active memory
1 Memory Address (MAR)
location
Holds contents of the accessed
2 Memory Buffer (MBR)
(read/written) memory word
Holds address of the next instruction to
3 Program Control (PC)
be executed
Holds data to be operated upon,
4 Accumulator (A)
intermediate results, and the results
Holds an instruction while it is being
5 Instruction (I)
executed
Used to communicate with the I/O
6 Input/Output (I/O)
devices

Ref Page 104 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 9/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Processor Speed

§ Computer has a built-in system clock that emits millions of

regularly spaced electric pulses per second (known as
clock cycles)
§ It takes one cycle to perform a basic operation, such as
moving a byte of data from one memory location to
another
§ Normally, several clock cycles are required to fetch,
decode, and execute a single program instruction
§ Hence, shorter the clock cycle, faster the processor
§ Clock speed (number of clock cycles per second) is
measured in Megahertz (106 cycles/sec) or Gigahertz (109
cycles/sec)

Ref Page 105 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 10/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Processor

Type of
Features Usage
Architecture
§ Large instruction set
CISC (Complex § Variable-length instructions Mostly used in
Instruction Set § Variety of addressing modes personal
Computer) § Complex & expensive to computers
produce
§ Small instruction set
RISC (Reduced
§ Fixed-length instructions Mostly used in
Instruction Set
§ Reduced references to workstations
Computer)
memory to retrieve operands

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 105 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 11/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Processor
(Continued from previous slide..)

Type of
Features Usage
Architecture
§ Allows software to
communicate explicitly to the
processor when operations
are parallel
EPIC (Explicitly
§ Uses tighter coupling Mostly used in
Parallel
between the compiler and the high-end servers
Instruction
processor and workstations
Computing)
§ Enables compiler to extract
maximum parallelism in the
original code, and explicitly
describe it to the processor

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 106 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 12/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Processor
(Continued from previous slide..)

Type of
Features Usage
Architecture
§ Processor chip has multiple
cooler-running, more energy-
efficient processing cores
§ Improve overall performance
Mostly used in
Multi-Core by handling more work in
high-end servers
Processor parallel
and workstations
§ can share architectural
components, such as memory
elements and memory
management

Ref Page 106 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 13/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Main Memory

§ Every computer has a temporary storage built into

the computer hardware
§ It stores instructions and data of a program mainly
when the program is being executed by the CPU.
§ This temporary storage is known as main memory,
primary storage, or simply memory.
§ Physically, it consists of some chips either on the
motherboard or on a small circuit board attached to
the motherboard of a computer
§ It has random access property.
§ It is volatile.

Ref Page 108 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 14/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Storage Evaluation Criteria

Primary Secondary
Property Desirable
storage storage
Storage
Large storage capacity Small Large
capacity

Access Time Fast access time Fast Slow

Cost per bit of
Lower cost per bit High Low
storage
Volatility Non-volatile Volatile Non-volatile
Pseudo-
random
Random
Access Random access access or
access
sequential
access

Ref Page 108 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 15/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Main Memory Organization

0
1
2
3
4
Addresses of The words
a memory 5
of a memory
(total N words)

N-2
N-1 Each word
contains the same
number of bits =
Bit 1 Bit 2 word length
(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 109 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 16/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Main Memory Organization

(Continued from previous slide..)

§ Machines having smaller word-length are slower in

operation than machines having larger word-length
§ A write to a memory location is destructive to its previous
contents
§ A read from a memory location is non-destructive to its
previous contents

Ref Page 110 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 17/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Fixed Word-length Memory

Word
0501 B O M B A Y
0502 D E L H I
Address 0503
Numbers

1024

§ Storage space is always allocated in multiples of word-length

§ Faster in speed of calculation than variable word-length memory
§ Normally used in large scientific computers for gaining speed of
calculation

Ref Page 110 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 18/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Variable Word-length Memory

0025 B 0051 D § Each memory location

0026 O can store only a single
0052 E character
0027 M L
0053 § Slower in speed of
0028 B 0054 H calculation than fixed
Address Address world-length memory
0029 A 0055 I
Numbers Numbers
0030 Y § Used in small business
0056
computers for
0031 optimizing the use of
storage space

4096 4096

Note: With memory becoming cheaper and larger day-by-day, most

modern computers employ fixed-word-length memory organization

Ref Page 110 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 19/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Memory Capacity

§ Memory capacity of a computer is equal to the number

of bytes that can be stored in its primary storage

§ Its units are:

Kilobytes (KB) : 1024 (210) bytes

Megabytes (MB) : 1,048,576 (220) bytes

Gigabytes (GB) : 1,073,741824 (230) bytes

Ref Page 111 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 20/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Random Access Memory (RAM)

§ Primary storage of a computer is often referred to as RAM

because of its random access capability
§ RAM chips are volatile memory
§ A computer’s motherboard is designed in a manner that
the memory capacity can be enhanced by adding more
memory chips
§ The additional RAM chips, which plug into special sockets
on the motherboard, are known as single-in-line memory
modules (SIMMs)

Ref Page 112 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 21/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Read Only Memory (ROM)

§ ROM a non-volatile memory chip

§ Data stored in a ROM can only be read and used – they
cannot be changed
§ ROMs are mainly used to store programs and data, which
do not change and are frequently used. For example,
system boot program

Ref Page 112 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 22/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of ROMs
Type Usage
Data is burnt by the manufacturer
Manufacturer-programmed
of the electronic equipment in
ROM
which it is used.

User-programmed ROM
or The user can load and store
“read-only” programs and data in
Programmable ROM it
(PROM)

The user can erase information

stored in it and the chip can be
Erasable PROM (EPROM)
reprogrammed to store new
information

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 112 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 23/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of ROMs
(Continued from previous slide..)

Type Usage

A type of EPROM chip in which the

Ultra Violet EPROM stored information is erased by
(UVEPROM) exposing the chip for some time
to ultra-violet light

Electrically EPROM
(EEPROM) A type of EPROM chip in which the
or stored information is erased by
using high voltage electric pulses
Flash memory

Ref Page 113 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 24/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Cache Memory

§ It is commonly used for minimizing the memory-

processor speed mismatch.
§ It is an extremely fast, small memory between CPU
and main memory whose access time is closer to the
processing speed of the CPU.
§ It is used to temporarily store very active data and
instructions during processing.

Cache is pronounced as “cash”

Ref Page 113 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 25/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key Words/Phrases

§ Accumulator Register (AR) § Flash Memory

§ Address § Input/Output Register (I/O)
§ Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) § Instruction Register (I)
§ Branch Instruction § Instruction set
§ Cache Memory § Kilobytes (KB)
§ Central Processing Unit (CPU) § Main Memory
§ CISC (Complex Instruction Set § Manufacturer-Programmed ROM
Computer) architecture § Megabytes (MB)
§ Clock cycles § Memory
§ Clock speed § Memory Address Register (MAR)
§ Control Unit § Memory Buffer Register (MBR)
§ Electrically EPROM (EEPROM) § Microprogram
§ Erasable Programmable Read- § Multi-core processor
Only Memory (EPROM) § Non-Volatile storage Processor
§ Explicitly Parallel Instruction § Program Control Register (PC)
Computing (EPIC) § Programmable Read-Only Memory
§ Fixed-word-length memory (PROM)
§ Random Access Memory (RAM)
(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 114 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 26/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key Words/Phrases
(Continued from previous slide..)

§ Read-Only Memory (ROM)

§ Register
§ RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer)
architecture
§ Single In-line Memory Module (SIMM)
§ Ultra Violet EPROM (UVEPROM)
§ Upward compatible
§ User-Programmed ROM
§ Variable-word-length memory
§ Volatile Storage
§ Word length
§ Word size

Ref Page 114 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 27/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ref Page Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 1/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about:

§ Secondary storage devices and their need

§ Classification of commonly used secondary storage
devices
§ Difference between sequential and direct access
storage devices
§ Basic principles of operation, types, and uses of
popular secondary storage devices such as magnetic
tape, magnetic disk, and optical disk

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 117 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 2/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives
(Continued from previous slide..)

§ Commonly used mass storage devices

§ Introduction to other related concepts such as RAID,
Jukebox, storage hierarchy, etc.

Ref Page 117 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 3/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Limitations of Primary Storage

§ Limited capacity because the cost per bit of storage

is high
§ Volatile - data stored in it is lost when the electric
power is turned off or interrupted

Ref Page 117 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 4/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Secondary Storage

§ Used in a computer system to overcome the limitations

of primary storage
§ Has virtually unlimited capacity because the cost per bit
of storage is very low
§ Has an operating speed far slower than that of the
primary storage
§ Used to store large volumes of data on a permanent
basis
§ Also known as auxiliary memory

Ref Page 117 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 5/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Classification of Commonly Used Secondary

Storage Devices
Secondary Storage
Devices

Sequential Access Direct Access Devices

Device

Magnetic Tape

Magnetic Optical Disks Memory Storage

Disks Devices

Flash Memory
Floppy Hard CD-ROM Card
WORM CD-RW DVD Drive
Disk Disks
(CD-R)

Zip Disk Disk Pack Winchester Disk

Ref Page 118 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 6/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sequential-access Storage Devices

§ Arrival at the desired storage location may be preceded

by sequencing through other locations
§ Data can only be retrieved in the same sequence in which
it is stored
§ Access time varies according to the storage location of
the information being accessed
§ Suitable for sequential processing applications where
most, if not all, of the data records need to be processed
one after another
§ Magnetic tape is a typical example of such a storage
device

Ref Page 118 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 7/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Direct-access Storage Devices

§ Devices where any storage location may be selected

and accessed at random
§ Permits access to individual information in a more
direct or immediate manner
§ Approximately equal access time is required for
accessing information from any storage location
§ Suitable for direct processing applications such as on-
line ticket booking systems, on-line banking systems
§ Magnetic, optical, and magneto-optical disks are
typical examples of such a storage device

Ref Page 118 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 8/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Tape Basics

§ Commonly used sequential-access secondary storage

device
§ Physically, the tape medium is a plastic ribbon, which
is usually ½ inch or ¼ inch wide and 50 to 2400 feet
long
§ Plastic ribbon is coated with a magnetizable recording
material such as iron-oxide or chromium dioxide
§ Data are recorded on the tape in the form of tiny
invisible magnetized and non-magnetized spots
(representing 1s and 0s) on its coated surface
§ Tape ribbon is stored in reels or a small cartridge or
cassette

Ref Page 119 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 9/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Tape - Storage Organization

(Example 1)
A frame Characters for
Track/Channel
numbers corresponding codes

0 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F G
Parity bit 7

6 Each vertical
Zone
line represents
5
a binary 1 bit
4

Numeric 3

Illustrates the concepts of frames, tracks, parity bit, and character-by-character data
storage

Ref Page 119 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 10/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Tape - Storage Organization (Example 2)

Track/ channel Characters for

numbers A frame for each corresponding codes
character

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B Each vertical
8’s digit line represents
9
a binary
Track 2’s digit 8
1 bit
representation Added zone 7
Added zone 6
Zone 5
Parity bit 4
Zone 3
Unit’s digit 2
4’s digit 1

Illustrates the concepts of frames, tracks, parity bit, and character-by-character data
storage

Ref Page 120 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 11/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Tape - Storage Organization (Example 3)

Tape motion

IBG R1 IBG R2 IBG R3 IBG R4 IBG R5 IBG R6

(a) An unblocked tape. There is an IBG after each record.

Tape motion

IBG R1 R2 IBG R3 R4 IBG R5 R6 IBG R7 R8 IBG

(b) A tape which uses a blocking factor of two. There is an IBG after every two records.

Tape motion

IBG R1 R2 R3 IBG R4 R5 R6 IBG R7 R8 R9 IBG

(c) A tape which uses a blocking factor of three. There is an IBG after every three records.

Illustrates the concepts of blocking of records, inter-block gap (IBG), and blocking factor

Ref Page 120 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 12/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Tape - Storage Organization (Example 4)

File header
File header File trailer label of next
label label file

Tape motion

Block of Block of
IBG IBG IBG IBG
records records

Illustrates the concepts of multiple blocks of records forming a file that is

separated from other files by a file header label in the beginning and a file trailer
label at the end of the file

Ref Page 120 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 13/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Tape-Storage Organization (Example 5)

Tape header
label File trailer
label of
BOT File header File trailer
label last file
marker label

unused IBG IB Blocks of records of IBG IBG IB unused

the file separated by
tape G G tape
IBGs

Tape motion
EOT marker

Illustrates the concepts of Beginning of Tape (BoT) and End of Tape

(EoT) markers, and tape header label

Ref Page 120 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 14/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Tape Storage Capacity

§ Storage capacity of a tape =

Data recording density x Length
§ Data recording density is the amount of data that can be
stored on a given length of tape. It is measured in bytes
per inch (bpi)
§ Tape density varies from 800 bpi in older systems to
77,000 bpi in some of the modern systems
§ Actual storage capacity of a tape may be anywhere from
35% to 70% of its total storage capacity, depending on
the storage organization used

Ref Page 120 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 15/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Tape – Data Transfer Rate

§ Refers to characters/second that can be transmitted to

the memory from the tape
§ Transfer rate measurement unit is bytes/second (bps)
§ Value depends on the data recording density and the
speed with which the tape travels under the read/write
head
§ A typical value of data transfer rate is 7.7 MB/second

Ref Page 121 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 16/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Tape – Tape Drive

§ Used for writing/reading of data to/from a magnetic

tape ribbon
§ Different for tape reels, cartridges, and cassettes
§ Has read/write heads for reading/writing of data on
tape
§ A magnetic tape reel/cartridge/cassette has to be first
loaded on a tape drive for reading/writing of data on it
§ When processing is complete, the tape is removed
from the tape drive for off-line storage

Ref Page 121 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 17/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Tape – Tape Controller

§ Tape drive is connected to and controlled by a tape

controller that interprets the commands for operating the
tape drive

§ A typical set of commands supported by a tape controller

are:
Read reads one block of data

Write writes one block of data

Write tape header label used to update the contents of tape header label

Erase tape erases the data recorded on a tape

Back space one block rewinds the tape to the beginning of previous block

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 121 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 18/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Tape – Tape Controller

(Continued from previous slide..)

Forward space one block forwards the tape to the beginning

of next block

Forward space one file forwards the tape to the beginning

of next file

Rewind fully rewinds the tape

Unload releases the tape drive’s grip so

that the tape spool can be
unmountedfrom the tape drive

Ref Page 121 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 19/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Magnetic Tape

§ ½-inch tape reel

§ ½-inch tape cartridge

§ ¼-inch streamer tape

§ 4-mm digital audio tape (DAT)

Ref Page 121 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 20/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Half-inch Tape Reel

§ Uses ½ inch wide tape ribbon stored on a tape reel

§ Uses parallel representation method of storing data, in
which data are read/written a byte at a time
§ Uses a read/write head assembly that has one
read/write head for each track
§ Commonly used as archival storage for off-line storage
of data and for exchange of data and programs
between organizations
§ Fast getting replaced by tape cartridge, streamer tape,
and digital audio tape they are more compact, cheaper
and easier to handle

Ref Page 122 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 21/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Half-inch Tape Reel

Ref Page 122 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 22/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Tape Drive of Half-inch Tape Reel

Supply Take-up
reel Magnetic tape reel

Read/write
head assembly

Vacuum
columns

Tape loops
varying in
length

Ref Page 122 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 23/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Half-inch Tape Cartridge

§ Uses ½ inch wide tape ribbon sealed in a cartridge

§ Has 36 tracks, as opposed to 9 tracks for most half-inch
tape reels
§ Stores data using parallel representation. Hence, 4 bytes
of data are stored across the width of the tape. This
enables more bytes of data to be stored on the same
length of tape
§ Tape drive reads/writes on the top half of the tape in
one direction and on the bottom half in the other
direction

Ref Page 122 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 24/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Half-inch Tape Cartridge

Ref Page 122 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 25/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Quarter-inch Streamer Tape

§ Uses ¼ inch wide tape ribbon sealed in a cartridge

§ Uses serial representation of data recording (data bits
are aligned in a row one after another in tracks)
§ Can have from 4 to 30 tracks, depending on the tape
drive
§ Depending on the tape drive, the read/write head
reads/writes data on one/two/four tracks at a time
§ Eliminates the need for the start/stop operation of
traditional tape drives

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 123 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 26/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Quarter-inch Streamer Tape

(Continued from previous slide..)

§ Can read/write data more efficiently than the

traditional tape drives because there is no start/stop
mechanism
§ Make more efficient utilization of tape storage area
than traditional tape drives because IBGs are not
needed
§ The standard data formats used in these tapes is
known as the QIC standard

Ref Page 123 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 27/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Quarter-inch Streamer Tape (Example)

Recording area Recording area

begins here ends here
Tracks
1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0.
2 ..
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1...
3 Unused Unused
4 portion portion
of the of the
5 tape tape
6

7
8

Ref Page 123 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 28/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

4mm Digital Audio Tape (DAT)

§ Uses 4mm wide tape ribbon sealed in a cartridge

§ Has very high data recording density
§ Uses a tape drive that uses helical scan technique for
data recording, in which two read heads and two write
heads are built into a small wheel
§ DAT drives use a data recording format called Digital
Data Storage (DDS), which provides three levels of
error-correcting code
§ Typical capacity of DAT cartridges varies from
4 GB to 14 GB

Ref Page 123 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 29/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

The Helical Scan Techniques

Used in DAT Drives

Write head B
Read head A
Spinning
Read head B
helical
scan

Write head A

Moving tape

Shaft

Ref Page 123 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 30/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantages of Magnetic Tapes

§ Storage capacity is virtually unlimited because as many

tapes as required can be used for storing very large
data sets
§ Cost per bit of storage is very low for magnetic tapes.
§ Tapes can be erased and reused many times
§ Tape reels and cartridges are compact and light in
weight
§ Easy to handle and store.
§ Very large amount of data can be stored in a small
storage space

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 123 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 31/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantages of Magnetic Tapes

(Continued from previous slide..)

§ Compact size and light weight

§ Magnetic tape reels and cartridges are also easily
portable from one place to another
§ Often used for transferring data and programs from
one computer to another that are not linked together

Ref Page 123 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 32/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Limitations of Magnetic Tapes

§ Due to their sequential access nature, they are not

suitable for storage of those data that frequently
require to be accessed randomly
§ Must be stored in a dust-free environment because
specks of dust can cause tape-reading errors
§ Must be stored in an environment with properly
controlled temperature and humidity levels
§ Tape ribbon may get twisted due to warping, resulting
in loss of stored data
§ Should be properly labeled so that some useful data
stored on a particular tape is not erased by mistake

Ref Page 123 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 33/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Uses of Magnetic Tapes

§ For applications that are based on sequential data

processing
§ Backing up of data for off-line storage
§ Archiving of infrequently used data
§ Transferring of data from one computer to another that
are not linked together
§ As a distribution media for software by vendors

Ref Page 124 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 34/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Disk - Basics

§ Commonly used direct-access secondary storage device.

§ Physically, a magnetic disk is a thin, circular
plate/platter made of metal or plastic that is usually
coated on both sides with a magnetizable recording
material such as iron-oxide
§ Data are recorded on the disk in the form of tiny
invisible magnetized and non-magnetized spots
(representing 1s and 0s) on the coated surfaces of the
disk
§ The disk is stored in a specially designed protective
envelope or cartridge, or several of them are stacked
together in a sealed, contamination-free container

Ref Page 124 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 35/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Disk – Storage Organization

Illustrates the Concept of Tracks

200 Track 000

§ A disk’s surface is divided into
Tracks
a number of invisible
concentric circles called tracks

§ The tracks are numbered

consecutively from outermost
to innermost starting from
zero

Track
§ The number of tracks on a
… …
199 disk may be as few as 40 on
small, low-capacity disks, to
several thousand on large,
high-capacity disks

Ref Page 125 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 36/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Disk – Storage Organization

Illustrates the Concept of Sectors

A sector

§ Each track of a disk is

subdivided into sectors

§ There are 8 or more

sectors per track

§ A sector typically contains

512 bytes

§ Disk drives are designed to

read/write only whole
sectors at a time

Ref Page 125 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 37/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Disk – Storage Organization

Illustrates Grouping of Tracks and Use of Different

Number of Sectors in Tracks of Different Groups for
Increased Storage Capacity

§ Innermost group of tracks

has 8 sectors/track

§ Next groups of tracks has

9 sectors/track

§ Outermost group of tracks

has 10 sectors/track

Ref Page 125 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 38/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Disk – Disk Address or

Address of a Record on a Disk

§ Disk address represents the physical location of the

record on the disk
§ It is comprised of the sector number, track number,
and surface number (when double-sided disks are
used)
§ This scheme is called the CHS addressing or Cylinder-
Head-Sector addressing. The same is also referred to
as disk geometry

Ref Page 126 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 39/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Disk – Storage Organization

(Illustrates the Concept of Cylinder)
Central shaft
Upper surface
not used
Read/Write head
Surface - 0 Direction of
Surface - 1 movement of
access arms
Surface - 2 assembly
Cylinder
Surface - 3

Access arms
Surface - 4
assembly
Surface - 5

Lower surface
not used

No. of disk platters = 4, No. of usable surfaces = 6. A set of corresponding

tracks on all the 6 surfaces is called a cylinder.

Ref Page 127 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 40/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Disk – Storage Capacity

Storage capacity of a disk system = Number of recording surfaces

× Number of tracks per surface
× Number of sectors per track
× Number of bytes per sector

Ref Page 126 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 41/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Disk Pack – Access Mechanism

One read/write
head per surface Central shaft

Direction of
movement of
access arms
assembly

Access arms
assembly
Vertical cross section of a disk system. There is one read/write head per
recording surface

Ref Page 127 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 42/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Disk – Access Time

§ Disk access time is the interval between the instant a

computer makes a request for transfer of data from a
disk system to the primary storage and the instant this
operation is completed

§ Disk access time depends on the following three

parameters:

– Seek Time: It is the time required to position the

read/write head over the desired track, as soon as
a read/write command is received by the disk unit

– Latency: It is the time required to spin the desired

sector under the read/write head, once the
read/write head is positioned on the desired track

Ref Page 128 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 43/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Disk – Access Time

– Transfer Rate: It is the rate at which data are

read/written to the disk, once the read/write head
is positioned over the desired sector

§ As the transfer rate is negligible as compared to seek

time and latency,

Average access time

= Average seek time + Average latency

Ref Page 128 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 44/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Disk Formatting

§ Process of preparing a new disk by the computer

system in which the disk is to be used.
§ For this, a new (unformatted) disk is inserted in the disk
drive of the computer system and the disk formatting
command is initiated
§ Low-level disk formatting
§ Disk drive’s read/write head lays down a magnetic
pattern on the disk’s surface
§ Enables the disk drive to organize and store the
data in the data organization defined for the disk
drive of the computer

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 129 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 45/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Disk Formatting
(Continued from previous slide..)

§ OS-level disk formatting

§ Creates the File Allocation Table (FAT) that is a
table with the sector and track locations of data
§ Leaves sufficient space for FAT to grow
§ Scans and marks bad sectors
§ One of the basic tasks handled by the computer’s
operating system
§ Enables the use of disks manufactured by third party
vendors into one’s own computer system

Ref Page 129 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 46/98

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Disk – Disk Drive

§ Unit used for reading/writing of data on/from a

magnetic disk

§ Contains all the mechanical, electrical and

electronic components for holding one or more
disks and for reading or writing of information on
to it

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 129 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 47/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Disk – Disk Drive

(Continued from previous slide..)

§ Although disk drives vary greatly in their shape, size

and disk formatting pattern, they can be broadly
classified into two types:

– Those with interchangeable magnetic disks,

which allow the loading and unloading of
magnetic disks as and when they are needed for
reading/writing of data on to them

– Those with fixed magnetic disks, which come

along with a set of permanently fixed disks. The
disks are not removable from their disk drives

Ref Page 129 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 48/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Disk – Disk Controller

§ Disk drive is connected to and controlled by a disk

controller, which interprets the commands for
operating the disk drive
§ Typically supports only read and write commands,
which need disk address (surface number,
cylinder/track number, and sector number) as
parameters
§ Connected to and controls more than one disk drive, in
which case the disk drive number is also needed as a
parameters of read and write commands

Ref Page 130 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 49/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Magnetic Disks

Magnetic Disks

Floppy Disks Hard Disks

Zip/Bernoulli Disks Disk Packs Winchester

Disks

Ref Page 130 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 50/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Floppy Disks

§ Round, flat piece of flexible plastic disks coated with

magnetic oxide
§ So called because they are made of flexible plastic
plates which can bend
§ Also known as floppies or diskettes
§ Plastic disk is encased in a square plastic or vinyl jacket
cover that gives handling protection to the disk surface

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 130 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 51/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Floppy Disks
(Continued from previous slide..)

§ The two types of floppy disks in use today are:

§ 5¼-inch diskette, whose diameter is 5¼-inch.

It is encased in a square, flexible vinyl jacket

§ 3½-inch diskette, whose diameter is 3½-inch.

It is encased in a square, hard plastic jacket

§ Most popular and inexpensive secondary storage

medium used in small computers

Ref Page 131 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 52/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

A 5¼-inch Floppy Disk

User’s label for
Manufacturer’s
identification purpose
label

Write protect notch

Drive spindle
hole in disk
5¼ - inch

Drive access opening

in jacket

Aperture in the jacket

through which the
read/write head makes
direct contact with the
disk surface

5¼ - inch

A 5¼-inch floppy disk enclosed within jacket. The drive mechanism clamps
on to a portion of the disk exposed by the drive access opening in the jacket

Ref Page 131 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 53/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

A 3½-inch Floppy Disk

Opening for inserting the
Light indicator disk inside the drive
(blinks when
read/write
operation takes Floppy disk
place) (a) Front view of a floppy disk eject button
drive.

Sliding metal
piece cover

3½” - inch
User’s label for
identification
Write-protect
plastic tab
3½” - inch
(b) A 3½ - inch floppy disk.

Ref Page 131 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 54/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Storage Capacities of Various Types of Floppy

Disks

Size No. of Approximate

(Diameter No. of No. of No. of Capacity
surfaces tracks sectors/track bytes/sector in bytes capacity
in inches)

5¼ 2 40 9 512 3,68,640 360 KB

5¼ 2 80 15 512 12,28,800 1.2 MB

3½ 2 40 18 512 7,37,280 720 KB

3½ 2 80 18 512 14,74,560 1.4 MB

3½ 2 80 36 512 29,49,120 2.88 MB

Ref Page 131 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 55/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Hard Disks

§ Round, flat piece of rigid metal (frequently aluminium)

disks coated with magnetic oxide
§ Come in many sizes, ranging from 1 to 14-inch
diameter.
§ Depending on how they are packaged, hard disks are of
three types:
§ Zip/Bernoulli disks
§ Disk packs
§ Winchester disks
§ Primary on-line secondary storage device for most
computer systems today

Ref Page 132 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 56/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Zip/Bernoulli Disks

§ Uses a single hard disk platter encased in a plastic

cartridge
§ Disk drives may be portable or fixed type
§ Fixed type is part of the computer system, permanently
connected to it
§ Portable type can be carried to a computer system,
connected to it for the duration of use, and then can be
disconnected and taken away when the work is done
§ Zip disks can be easily inserted/removed from a zip drive
just as we insert/remove floppy disks in a floppy disk
drive

Ref Page 132 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 57/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Disk Packs

§ Uses multiple (two or more) hard disk platters

mounted on a single central shaft
§ Disk drives have a separate read/write head for each
usable disk surface (the upper surface of the top-most
disk and the lower surface of the bottom most disk is
not used)
§ Disks are of removable/interchangeable type in the
sense that they have to be mounted on the disk drive
before they can be used, and can be removed and
kept off-line when not in use

Ref Page 132 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 58/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Winchester Disks

§ Uses multiple (two or more) hard disk platters

mounted on a single central shaft

§ Hard disk platters and the disk drive are sealed

together in a contamination-free container and cannot
be separated from each other

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 132 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 59/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Winchester Disks
(Continued from previous slide..)

§ For the same number of disks, Winchester disks have

larger storage capacity than disk packs because:

– All the surfaces of all disks are used for data

recording

They employ much greater precision of data recording,

resulting in greater data recording density

§ Named after the .30-30 Winchester rifle because the

early Winchester disk systems had two 30-MB disks
sealed together with the disk drive

Ref Page 132 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 60/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantages of Magnetic Disks

§ More suitable than magnetic tapes for a wider range of

applications because they support direct access of data
§ Random access property enables them to be used
simultaneously by multiple users as a shared device. A
tape is not suitable for such type of usage due to its
sequential-access property
§ Suitable for both on-line and off-line storage of data

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 133 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 61/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantages of Magnetic Disks

(Continued from previous slide..)

§ Except for the fixed type Winchester disks, the storage

capacity of other magnetic disks is virtually unlimited
as many disks can be used for storing very large data
sets
§ Due to their low cost and high data recording densities,
the cost per bit of storage is low for magnetic disks.
§ An additional cost benefit is that magnetic disks can be
erased and reused many times
§ Floppy disks and zip disks are compact and light in
weight. Hence they are easy to handle and store.
§ Very large amount of data can be stored in a small
storage space

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 133 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 62/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantages of Magnetic Disks

§ Due to their compact size and light weight, floppy disks

and zip disks are also easily portable from one place to
another
§ They are often used for transferring data and programs
from one computer to another, which are not linked
together
§ Any information desired from a disk storage can be
accessed in a few milliseconds because it is a direct
access storage device

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 133 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 63/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantages of Magnetic Disks

(Continued from previous slide..)

§ Data transfer rate for a magnetic disk system is

normally higher than a tape system
§ Magnetic disks are less vulnerable to data corruption
due to careless handling or unfavorable temperature
and humidity conditions than magnetic tapes

Ref Page 133 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 64/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Limitations of Magnetic Disks

§ Although used for both random processing and

sequential processing of data, for applications of the
latter type, it may be less efficient than magnetic
tapes
§ More difficult to maintain the security of information
stored on shared, on-line secondary storage devices,
as compared to magnetic tapes or other types of
magnetic disks

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 134 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 65/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Limitations of Magnetic Disks

(Continued from previous slide..)

§ For Winchester disks, a disk crash or drive failure often

results in loss of entire stored data. It is not easy to
recover the lost data. Suitable backup procedures are
suggested for data stored on Winchester disks
§ Some types of magnetic disks, such as disk packs and
Winchester disks, are not so easily portable like
magnetic tapes
§ On a cost-per-bit basis, the cost of magnetic disks is
low, but the cost of magnetic tapes is even lower

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 134 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 66/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Limitations of Magnetic Disks

(Continued from previous slide..)

§ Must be stored in a dust-free environment

§ Floppy disks, zip disks and disk packs should be
labeled properly to prevent erasure of useful data by
mistake

Ref Page 134 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 67/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Uses of Magnetic Disks

§ For applications that are based on random data

processing
§ As a shared on-line secondary storage device.
Winchester disks and disk packs are often used for
this purpose
§ As a backup device for off-line storage of data. Floppy
disks, zip disks, and disk packs are often used for this
purpose

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 134 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 68/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Uses of Magnetic Disks

(Continued from previous slide..)

§ Archiving of data not used frequently, but may be

used once in a while. Floppy disks, zip disks, and
disk packs are often used for this purpose
§ Transferring of data and programs from one
computer to another that are not linked together.
Floppy disks and zip disks are often used for this
purpose
§ Distribution of software by vendors. Originally sold
software or software updates are often distributed by
vendors on floppy disks and zip disks

Ref Page 134 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 69/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Optical Disk – Basics

§ Consists of a circular disk, which is coated with a thin

metal or some other material that is highly reflective
§ Laser beam technology is used for recording/reading
of data on the disk
§ Also known as laser disk / optical laser disk, due to
the use of laser beam technology
§ Proved to be a promising random access medium for
high capacity secondary storage because it can store
extremely large amounts of data in a limited space

Ref Page 134 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 70/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Optical Disk – Storage Organization

§ Has one long spiral track, which starts at the outer edge
and spirals inward to the center
§ Track is divided into equal size sectors

(a) Track pattern on an optical disk (b) Track pattern on a magnetic disk

Difference in track patterns on optical and magnetic disks.

Ref Page 135 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 71/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Optical Disk – Storage Capacity

Storage capacity of an optical disk

= Number of sectors
× Number of bytes per sector

The most popular optical disk uses a disk of 5.25 inch

diameter with storage capacity of around 650 Megabytes

Ref Page 135 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 72/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Optical Disk – Access Mechanism

Laser Laser
beam beam
source source

Prism Prism

Sensor Sensor
Laser beam gets Laser beam gets
scattered by a pit reflect by a land
(represents 0) (represents1)

Land Land
Pit Land
Pit Pit

Ref Page 136 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 73/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Optical Disk – Access Time

§ With optical disks, each sector has the same length

regardless of whether it is located near or away from
the disk’s center
§ Rotation speed of the disk must vary inversely with
the radius. Hence, optical disk drives use a constant
linear velocity (CLV) encoding scheme
§ Leads to slower data access time (larger access time)
for optical disks than magnetic disks
§ Access times for optical disks are typically in the
range of 100 to 300 milliseconds and that of hard
disks are in the range of 10 to 30 milliseconds

Ref Page 137 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 74/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Optical Disk Drive

§ Uses laser beam technology for reading/writing of data

§ Has no mechanical read/write access arm
§ Uses a constant linear velocity (CLV) encoding scheme,
in which the rotational speed of the disk varies inversely
with the radius

Ref Page 136 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 75/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Optical Disk Drive

Volume control button used

Light
when the drive is used to Optical disk
indicator
play a music CD

A headphone socket Is placed on

enables the user to top of this
plug-in head-phones groove
and listen to recorded Tray eject Direction of
sound when the drive button movement of
is used to play music the tray
CDs. Optical disk tray

Ref Page 137 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 76/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Optical Disks

The types of optical disks in use today are:

CD-ROM

§ Stands for Compact Disk-Read Only Memory

§ Packaged as shiny, silver color metal disk of 5¼
inch (12cm) diameter, having a storage capacity of
about 650 Megabytes
§ Disks come pre-recorded and the information
stored on them cannot be altered
§ Pre-stamped (pre-recorded) by their suppliers, by a
process called mastering

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 138 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 77/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Optical Disks

(Continued from previous slide..)

§ Provide an excellent medium to distribute large

amounts of data in electronic dorm at low cost.
§ A single CD-ROM disk can hold a complete
encyclopedia, or a dictionary, or a world atlas, or
biographies of great people, etc
§ Used for distribution of electronic version of
conference proceedings, journals, magazines,
books, and multimedia applications such as video
games
§ Used by software vendors for distribution of
software to their customers

Ref Page 138 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 78/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Optical Disks

WORM Disk / CD-Recordable (CD-R)

§ Stands for Write Once Read Many. Data can be written

only once on them, but can be read many times
§ Same as CD-ROM and has same storage capacity
§ Allow users to create their own CD-ROM disks by using
a CD-recordable (CD-R) drive that can be attached to
a computer as a regular peripheral device
§ Data to be recorded can be written on its surface in
multiple recording sessions

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 138 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 79/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Optical Disks

(Continued from previous slide..)

§ Sessions after the first one are always additive

and cannot alter the etched/burned information of
earlier sessions
§ Information recorded on them can be read by any
ordinary CD-ROM drive
§ They are used for data archiving and for making a
permanent record of data. For example, many
banks use them for storing their daily transactions

Ref Page 138 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 80/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Optical Disks

CD-Read/Write (CD-RW)

§ Same as CD-R and has same storage capacity

§ Allow users to create their own CD-ROM disks by
using a CD-recordable (CD-R) drive that can be
attached to a computer as a regular peripheral
device
§ Data to be recorded can be written on its surface in
multiple recording sessions
§ Made of metallic alloy layer whose chemical
properties are changed during burn and erase
§ Can be erased and written afresh

Ref Page 138 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 81/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Optical Disks

Digital Video / Versatile Disk (DVD)

§ Looks same as CD-ROM but has capacity of 4.7 GB or

8.5 GB
§ Designed primarily to store and distribute movies
§ Can be used for storage of large data
§ Allows storage of video in 4:3 or 16:9 aspect-ratios in
MPEG-2 video format using NTSC or PAL resolution
§ Audio is usually Dolby® Digital (AC-3) or Digital
Theater System (DTS) and can be either monaural or
5.1 Surround Sound

Ref Page 138 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 82/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantages of Optical Disks

§ The cost-per-bit of storage for optical disks is very low

because of their low cost and enormous storage density.
§ The use of a single spiral track makes optical disks an ideal
storage medium for reading large blocks of sequential data,
such as music.
§ Optical disk drives do not have any mechanical read/write
heads to rub against or crash into the disk surface. This
makes optical disks a more reliable storage medium than
magnetic tapes or magnetic disks.
§ Optical disks have a data storage life in excess of 30 years.
This makes them a better storage medium for data
archiving as compared to magnetic tapes or magnetic disks.

Ref Page 139 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 83/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantages of Optical Disks

§ As data once stored on an optical disk becomes

permanent, danger of stored data getting
inadvertently erased/overwritten is removed
§ Due to their compact size and light weight, optical
disks are easy to handle, store, and port from one
place to another
§ Music CDs can be played on a computer having a CD-
ROM drive along with a sound board and speakers.
This allows computer systems to be also used as
music systems

Ref Page 139 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 84/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Limitations of Optical Disks

§ It is largely read-only (permanent) storage medium.

Data once recorded, cannot be erased and hence the
optical disks cannot be reused
§ The data access speed for optical disks is slower than
magnetic disks
§ Optical disks require a complicated drive mechanism

Ref Page 139 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 85/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Uses of Optical Disks

§ For distributing large amounts of data at low cost

§ For distribution of electronic version of conference
proceedings, journals, magazines, books, product
catalogs, etc
§ For distribution of new or upgraded versions of
software products by software vendors

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 140 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 86/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Uses of Optical Disks

(Continued from previous slide..)

§ For storage and distribution of a wide variety of

multimedia applications
§ For archiving of data, which are not used frequently,
but which may be used once in a while
§ WORM disks are often used by end-user companies to
make permanent storage of their own proprietary
information

Ref Page 140 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 87/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Memory Storage Devices

Flash Drive (Pen Drive)

§ Relatively new secondary storage device based on

flash memory, enabling easy transport of data from
one computer to another
§ Compact device of the size of a pen, comes in
various shapes and stylish designs and may have
different added features
§ Plug-and-play device that simply plugs into a USB
(Universal Serial Bus) port of a computer, treated as
removable drive
§ Available storage capacities are 8MB, 16MB, 64MB,
128MB, 256MB, 512MB, 1GB, 2GB, 4GB, and 8GB

Ref Page 140 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 88/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Memory Storage Devices

Memory Card (SD/MMC)

§ Similar to Flash Drive but in card shape

§ Plug-and-play device that simply plugs into a port
of a computer, treated as removable drive
§ Useful in electronic devices like Camera, music
player
§ Available storage capacities are 8MB, 16MB, 64MB,
128MB, 256MB, 512MB, 1GB, 2GB, 4GB, and 8GB

Ref Page 141 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 89/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Mass Storage Devices

§ As the name implies, these are storage systems

having several trillions of bytes of data storage
capacity
§ They use multiple units of a storage media as a single
secondary storage device
§ The three commonly used types are:
1. Disk array, which uses a set of magnetic disks
2. Automated tape library, which uses a set of
magnetic tapes
3. CD-ROM Jukebox, which uses a set of CD-ROMs
§ They are relatively slow having average access times
in seconds

Ref Page 142 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 90/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Disk Array

§ Set of hard disks and hard disk drives with a

controller mounted in a single box, forming a single
large storage unit
§ It is commonly known as a RAID (Redundant Array
of Inexpensive Disks)
§ As a secondary storage device, provides enhanced
storage capacity, enhanced performance, and
enhanced reliability

Ref Page 142 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 91/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Disk Array

§ Enhanced storage capacity is achieved by using

multiple disks
§ Enhanced performance is achieved by using parallel
data transfer technique from multiple disks
§ Enhanced reliability is achieved by using techniques
such as mirroring or striping
§ In mirroring, the system makes exact copies of files
on two hard disks
§ In striping, a file is partitioned into smaller parts and
different parts of the file are stored on different disks

Ref Page 142 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 92/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

A RAID Unit

Multiple
disks

RAID Controller

Computer

Ref Page 142 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 93/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Automated Tape Library

§ Set of magnetic tapes and magnetic tape drives with

a controller mounted in a single box, forming a
single large storage unit
§ Large tape library can accommodate up to several
hundred high capacity magnetic tapes bringing the
storage capacity of the storage unit to several
terabytes
§ Typically used for data archiving and as on-line data
backup devices for automated backup in large
computer centers

Ref Page 142 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 94/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

CD-ROM Jukebox

§ Set of CD-ROMs and CD-ROM drives with a

controller mounted in a single box, forming a single
large storage unit
§ Large CD-ROM jukebox can accommodate up to
several hundred CD-ROM disks bringing the storage
capacity of the storage unit to several terabytes
§ Used for archiving read-only data in such
applications as on-line museums, on-line digital
libraries, on-line encyclopedia, etc

Ref Page 143 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 95/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Storage Hierarchy
As a single type of storage is not superior in speed of access, capacity, and
cost, most computer systems make use of a hierarchy of storage
technologies as shown below.

Smaller capacity, faster Cache Larger capacity,

access time, and higher memory slower access time,
cost per bit stored Main and lower cost per
memory bit stored
On-line, direct-access and
sequential-access secondary
storage device such as hard disk
Off-line, direct-access and sequential-access
secondary storage devices such as magnetic
tape, floppy disk, zip disk, WORM disk, etc.
Mass storage devices such as tape library, CD juke box, etc.

Ref Page 144 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 96/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key Words/Phrases

§ Automated tape library § Floppy disk

§ Auxiliary memory § Hard disk
§ Block § Inter-block gap (IBG)
§ Blocking § Inter-record gap (IRG)
§ Blocking factory § Land
§ CD-ROM § Latency
§ CD-ROM jukebox § Magnetic disk
§ Check bit § Magnetic tape
§ Cylinder § Magnetic tape drive
§ Data transfer rate § Mass storage devices
§ Direct access device § Master file
§ Disk array § Odd parity
§ Disk controller § Off-line storage
§ Disk drive § On-line storage
§ Disk formatting § Optical disk
§ Disk pack § Parallel representation
§ DVD § Parity bit
§ Even parity § Pit
§ File Allocation Tube (FAT)

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 144 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 97/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key Words/Phrases
(Continued from previous slide..)

§ QIC Standard
§ Record
§ Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks (RAID)
§ Secondary storage
§ Sector
§ Seek time
§ Sequential access device
§ Storage hierarchy
§ Tape controller
§ Track
§ Transaction file
§ Winchester disk
§ WORM disk
§ Zip disk

Ref Page 144 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 98/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ref Page Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 1/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about:

§ Term “Software” and its relationship with “Hardware”

§ Various types of software and their examples
§ Relationship among hardware, system software,
application software, and users of a computer system
§ Different ways of acquiring software
§ Various steps involved in software development
§ Firmware
§ Middleware

Ref Page 172 Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 2/17

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Software

§ Hardware refers to the physical devices of a

computer system.
§ Software refers to a collection of programs
§ Program is a sequence of instructions written in a
language that can be understood by a computer
§ Software package is a group of programs that solve
a specific problem or perform a specific type of job

Ref Page 172 Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 3/17

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Relationship Between Hardware and

Software

§ Both hardware and software are necessary for a

computer to do useful job. They are complementary
to each other
§ Same hardware can be loaded with different software
to make a computer system perform different types
of jobs
§ Except for upgrades, hardware is normally a one-
time expense, whereas software is a continuing
expense
§ Upgrades refer to renewing or changing components
like increasing the main memory, or hard disk
capacities, or adding speakers, modems, etc.

Ref Page 173 Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 4/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Software

Most software can be divided into two major categories:

§ System software are designed to control the
operation and extend the processing capability of a
computer system
§ Application software are designed to solve a
specific problem or to do a specific task

Ref Page 173 Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 5/17

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

System Software

§ Make the operation of a computer system more effective

and efficient

§ Help hardware components work together and provide

support for the development and execution of application
software

§ Programs included in a system software package are

called system programs and programmers who
prepare them are called system programmers

§ Examples of system software are operating systems,

programming language translators, utility programs, and
communications software

Ref Page 173 Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 6/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Application Software

§ Solve a specific problem or do a specific task

§ Programs included in an application software
package are called application programs and the
programmers who prepare them are called
application programmers
§ Examples of application software are word
processing, inventory management, preparation of
tax returns, banking, etc.

Ref Page 174 Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 7/17

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Logical System Architecture

HARDWARE
(Physical devices/components
of the computer system)

SYSTEM SOFTWARE
(Software that constitute the operating and
programming environment of the computer system)

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
(Software that do a specific task or solve a specific problem)

USERS
(Normally interact with the system via the user
interface provided by the application software)

Relationship among hardware, system software, application software, and users of a

computer system.

Ref Page 175 Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 8/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ways of Acquiring Software

§ Buying pre-written software

§ Ordering customized software
§ Developing customized software
§ Downloading public-domain software

Each of these ways of acquiring software has its own

advantages and limitations

Ref Page 176 Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 9/17

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Advantages and Limitations of
Buying Pre-written Software

§ Usually costs less

§ Planned activity can be stared almost immediately
§ Often, operating efficiency and the capability to meet
specific needs of user more effectively in not as good
for pre-written software packages as for in-house
developed software packages

Ref Page 176 Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 10/17

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantages & Limitations of Ordering

Customized Software

§ User need not maintain its own software development team,

which is an expensive affair
§ User needs to always depend on the vendor for carrying out
the changes and the vendor may separately charge for
every request for change

Ref Page 177 Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 11/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantages & Limitations of Developing

Customized Software

§ Easier to carry out changes in the software, if it is

developed in-house
§ Developing software in-house means a major
commitment of time, money, and resources
§ In-house software development team needs to be
maintained and managed

Ref Page 177 Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 12/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantage & Limitations of Downloading

Public-domain Software

§ Available for free or as shareware, and are usually accompanied

with source code
§ Usually community-supported as author does not support users
directly
§ Can be downloaded and used immediately
§ They may not be properly tested before release
§ Open Source Software (OSS) are becoming popular due to:
§ Allows any user to download, view, modify, and redistribute
§ User can fix bugs or change software to suit needs
§ Copyright is protected for both original and subsequent
authors
§ Not all open source software are free and vise-verse

Ref Page 178 Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 13/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Software Development Steps

Developing a software and putting it to use is a complex

process and involves following steps:
§ Analyzing the problem at hand and planning the
program(s) to solve the problem
§ Coding the program(s)
§ Testing, debugging, and documenting the program(s)
§ Implementing the program(s)
§ Evaluating and maintaining the program(s)

Ref Page 178 Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 14/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Firmware

§ Firmware is software substituted for hardware and stored

in read-only memory
§ Firmware technology has enabled production of various
types of smart machines having microprocessor chips
with embedded software

Ref Page 179 Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 15/17

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Middleware

§ Basic idea is to have a separate software layer to:

§ Act as “glue” between client and server parts of
application
§ Provide programming abstraction
§ Mask heterogeneity of underlying network, hardware,
and OS
§ Encourages three-tier software architecture against two-
tier popularized by Server-Client architecture

Ref Page 179 Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 16/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key Words/Phrases

§ Application programmers § Pre-written software

§ Application programs § Public-domain software
§ Application software § Shareware
§ Computer program § Software
§ Customized software § Software package
§ Database § Spreadsheet
§ Education software § System programmers
§ End-to-end solution § System programs
§ Entertainment software § System software
§ Firmware § Turnkey solution
§ Graphics software § User-supported
§ Hardware software
§ Middleware § Utilities
§ Open Source Software § Word-processing
§ Personal assistance software

Ref Page 181 Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 17/17