Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Background to the Study

The advent of digital technologies has revolutionized the way individuals, particularly young adults,
interact with the world. Media, in its diverse forms, has become an integral part of daily life, shaping
communication, entertainment, and information consumption. While media offers numerous benefits,
such as access to information, social connectivity, and entertainment, excessive or maladaptive use can
have detrimental effects on psychological well-being.

As society evolves through a complex interplay of various factors including technological advancements,
cultural shifts, economic changes and environmental influences. These changes however can profoundly
affect individual's perception and attitude. With the advent of social media, the shift has moved from
revolutionized communication and interaction patterns influencing how people perceive themselves and
others. The media has become a platform not only for discussion and interaction but people often argue
about matters of public concerns. Hence communication has been identified as a tool for expression
(Asemah, 2017).

Boyd and Ellison (2007) highlight how the media platforms shape individual's identities and
relationships. This means that the media is a platform of expression with emerging concepts like mental
health and well being of users .The advent of the digital age has ushered in an era of unprecedented
media consumption. Young adults, in particular, are deeply immersed in a media-saturated
environment, engaging with a myriad of platforms and content on a daily basis. While media offers
numerous benefits, such as access to information, social connection, and entertainment, excessive or
maladaptive use can Young adults today are deeply immersed in a media-rich environment. Studies have
shown that a significant portion of this demographic spends a considerable amount of time online. For
instance, Pew Research Center (2023) reported that a majority of young adults in the United States
access the internet daily, often through smartphones have detrimental effects on psychological well-
being.

Moreso , research consistently indicates high levels of screen time among young adults. Common Sense
Media (2022) found that adolescents in the United States spend an average of more than seven hours
per day on screens. This includes time spent on social media, gaming, and streaming services.Social
media platforms have become particularly pervasive among young adults. Pew Research Center (2023)
reports that a significant majority of young adults use social media platforms like Facebook, Instagram,
and TikTok on a daily basis.

Mental health challenges are increasingly prevalent among young adults. The World Health Organization
(2022) reports that anxiety and depression are among the leading causes of disability worldwide,
particularly among young people.
Numerous studies have explored the relationship between media use and mental health. For instance,
Twenge et al. (2018) found a significant increase in adolescent depression and suicide rates in recent
years, which they attributed in part to increased screen time. Kross et al. (2013) demonstrated that
Facebook use can lead to feelings of envy and lower self-esteem.

However, the complex interplay between media use and psychological well-being is multifaceted and
requires further research . While excessive screen time and negative content consumption can
negatively impact mental health, positive media use, such as social connection and entertainment, can
have beneficial effects. Young adults today navigate a media-saturated environment, with digital
technologies profoundly impacting their lives. This generation has witnessed a rapid evolution of media,
from traditional forms like television and radio to the rise of the internet, smartphones, and social media
platforms. This pervasive media landscape has significantly influenced how young adults communicate,
access information, and engage with the world. This study is fueled by the increasing prevalence of
media use and dependence by young adults including undergraduates and the importance of
investigating the level of media exposure and usage on their well being . This is why this research
examines the relationship between media use pattern and psychological well being among young adults.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Despite the growing body of research, there is still a need to delve deeper into the nuanced relationship
between media use patterns and psychological well-being among young adults. This study aims to
address this gap by investigating how specific media use behaviors, such as screen time, content
consumption, and social media engagement, influence psychological well-being indicators like stress,
anxiety, and life satisfaction.

The pervasive influence of media in the lives of young adults has raised significant concerns about its
impact on their psychological well-being. While media offers numerous benefits, such as access to
information, social connection, and entertainment, excessive or maladaptive use can have detrimental
effects, including increased stress, anxiety, depression, and sleep disturbances.

Twenge et al. (2018), in their research on adolescent mental health, observed a significant increase in
rates of depression and suicide among adolescents in recent years, which they attributed in part to
increased screen time and social media use. This finding underscores the potential negative impact of
excessive media consumption on young people's mental health.

Furthermore, Kross et al. (2013) demonstrated that passive Facebook use, such as browsing through
others' profiles, can lead to feelings of envy and lower self-esteem due to social comparison. This
highlights the potential for social media to negatively influence self-perception and emotional well-being
among young adults.

Despite growing evidence on the potential negative impacts of media use, the relationship between
media use patterns and psychological well-being is complex and multifaceted. It is crucial to understand
the specific factors that contribute to these associations, such as the types of media consumed, the
frequency and duration of use, and individual differences in media engagement.

Moreover, while research has focused on the potential risks, it is equally important to acknowledge the
potential benefits of media use. Media can facilitate social connection, provide access to valuable
information and educational resources, and serve as a source of entertainment and relaxation.
Therefore, this study aims to investigate the complex interplay between media use patterns, such as
screen time, content consumption, and platform usage, and psychological well-being indicators,
including stress, anxiety, depression, life satisfaction, and self-esteem among young adults. The
statement sought to answer the what are the relationship between media use and psychological well
being indicators among young adults ?

1.3 Research Objectives

The objective of this study was to :

1. Find out the percentage of media use by young adults

2. Find out the patterns of media use among young adults.

3. Ascertain the relationship between specific media use behaviors (e.g., screen time, social media use,
video game consumption) and psychological well-being indicators.

4.Ascertain the potential mediating and moderating factors that influence the relationship between
media use and well-being.

5.Examine the differential impact of different types of media content (e.g., social media, video games,
news) on psychological well-being.

1.4 Research Questions

1. What are the predominant media use patterns, including screen time and content consumption
habits, among young adults in the study population?

2. What is the strength and direction of the relationship between overall media use (e.g., screen time)
and psychological well-being indicators (e.g., stress, anxiety, life satisfaction)?

3. How do specific media use behaviors (e.g., social media use, video game consumption) differentially
impact psychological well-being indicators among young adults?

4. What factors mediate or moderate the relationship between media use and psychological well-being,
such as personality traits, social support, and lifestyle factors?

5. What is the differential impact of different types of media content (e.g., social media, news,
entertainment, educational content) on psychological well-being indicators among young adults?

1.5 Significance of the Study

In today's rapidly evolving digital age, understanding the intricate relationship between media use and
psychological well-being is of paramount importance. This research holds significant value for
individuals, society, and future research endeavors.

The findings of this study would provide valuable insights for young adults themselves, empowering
them to make informed choices about their media consumption habits. By understanding the potential
impact of different types of media use on their mental health, individuals can develop strategies for
healthier media engagement, such as setting limits on screen time, prioritizing meaningful interactions,
and cultivating mindful media consumption habits.

Also , the study would contribute to a better understanding of the factors that influence psychological
well-being in the context of media use. This knowledge can empower individuals to recognize the
potential impact of media on their mental health and seek appropriate support when needed. The
findings of this study would inform the development of public health policies and interventions aimed at
promoting healthy media use among young adults. This could include educational programs in schools,
public awareness campaigns, and the development of digital literacy programs.

Findings of this study would help inform the development of new technologies and media platforms
that prioritize user well-being and minimize the potential risks associated with excessive or maladaptive
media use.The findings can influence media creators and platforms to consider the potential impact of
their content on user well-being and to prioritize the creation of content that is informative, engaging,
and supportive of positive mental health outcomes.

Moreso , This research will contribute to the existing body of knowledge on the relationship between
media use and psychological well-being, filling gaps in current understanding and providing a more
nuanced perspective on this complex issue. The findings of this study could generate new research
questions and hypotheses, paving the way for future research in this area.The study would foster
interdisciplinary collaboration among researchers in psychology, communication, sociology, and other
relevant fields to address the multifaceted challenges of media use in the digital age.

Overall, this research has the potential to make a significant contribution to our understanding of the
impact of media on young adults' psychological well-being. By identifying the factors that influence this
relationship and developing evidence-based interventions, we can empower young people to navigate
the digital world in a healthy and meaningful way.

1.6 Scope of the Study

This study will investigate the relationship between media use patterns and psychological well-being
among undergraduate students at the University of Benin, Ekehuan Campus. The focus will be on
understanding how different aspects of media consumption, such as screen time, content engagement,
and platform usage, impact psychological well-being indicators, including stress, anxiety, life satisfaction,
and self-esteem.

The study will specifically focus on undergraduate students currently enrolled at the University of Benin,
Ekehuan Campus. This population was chosen to provide a focused investigation within a specific
academic and social context. The study will explore a comprehensive range of media use patterns,
including Screen Time, social media use , gaming , streaming services , traditional media and content
consumption while accessing l a range of psychological well-being indicators, including stress levels ,
anxiety levels , self esteem etc.

1.7 Definition of terms

1. Content Consumption:Content consumption refers to the types of media content individuals engage
with, including social media posts, news articles, videos, music, games, and online communication. It
includes the selection, interpretation, and evaluation of media content.

2. Gaming: Gaming refers to the activity of playing video games, which can include a wide range of
genres and formats, from console and PC games to mobile games and online gaming.

3. Media Use:Media use encompasses a broad range of activities involving the consumption and
interaction with various forms of media, including television, radio, newspapers, magazines, books, the
internet, social media, video games, and mobile applications. It includes the frequency, duration, and
types of media content consumed by individuals.
4. Psychological Well-being: Psychological well-being encompasses various aspects of mental health and
emotional state .

5. Screen Time: Screen time refers to the total amount of time spent using digital devices, such as
smartphones, tablets, computers, and televisions. It encompasses time spent on social media, gaming,
streaming services, and other digital activities.

6. Social Media:Social media refers to online platforms that enable users to create, share, and exchange
content, ideas, and information. Examples include Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, TikTok, and Snapchat.

7. Streaming Services: Streaming services are online platforms that allow users to stream audio, video,
and other types of media content over the internet, such as Netflix, YouTube, Spotify, and Amazon
Prime Video.

9. Stressors: Stressors are any internal or external stimuli that cause stress. They can include academic
pressure, social pressures, financial difficulties, relationship problems, and major life events.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 introduction

This chapter presents a conceptual review of relevant literature, previous works on the subject matter
and theory adopted in this research with the aim of providing current knowledge including substantive
findings. it is contained and explained under the following subheading:

2.1 Historical review

2.1.1 Historical context of media use and human experience

2.2 conceptual review

2.2.1 media use patterns

2.2.2 understanding media use patterns

2.3 concept of psychological well being

2.4 The Relationship between media use

2.4.1 potential benefits of media use

2.4.2 potential risks of media use

2.5 Intersectionality

2.6 Empirical review

2.7 Theoretical framework

2.1 Historical review

2.1.1 Historical context of media use and human experience

the evolution of media and its profound impact on human experience traces the trajectory of media
from its earliest forms to the contemporary digital age, exploring how different media technologies have
shaped communication, culture, and social interaction throughout history. This historical perspective is
crucial for understanding the current landscape of media use and its implications for individual and
societal well-being.

Long before written language, humans relied on oral traditions, storytelling, and face-to-face
communication to transmit information, share cultural values, and maintain social bonds. These early
forms of communication laid the foundation for the development of more sophisticated forms of
media .Cave paintings, hieroglyphics, and other early forms of visual communication served as
important means of expression, storytelling, and historical record-keeping. The development of writing
systems, such as cuneiform and hieroglyphics, revolutionized communication by enabling the recording
and dissemination of information beyond the constraints of oral transmission.

Furthermore, the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century
revolutionized communication and knowledge dissemination. It enabled the mass production of books
and other printed materials, significantly reducing the cost of producing and distributing
information.The printing press played a pivotal role in the spread of literacy and the dissemination of
knowledge. It facilitated the rise of new ideas, challenged traditional authority, and fueled the growth of
scientific and intellectual discourse.

In Marshall McLuhan (1964) ,McLuhan's concept of the "global village" emphasizes how media
technologies can connect people across geographical boundaries, fostering a sense of
interconnectedness. He argued that the medium itself shapes the message, emphasizing the importance
of understanding the impact of different media technologies on human experience
Moreso , The 19th and 20th centuries witnessed the emergence of mass media, including newspapers,
magazines, radio, and television. These technologies enabled mass communication and entertainment,
shaping public opinion, influencing social and cultural norms, and transforming the way people received
information.

With the invention of the internet in the late 20th century ushered in a new era of communication and
information sharing. It facilitated the creation of the World Wide Web, enabling unprecedented access
to information and connecting people across geographical boundaries.

According to Harold Innis (1951) ,Innis's work on the "bias of communication" highlights how different
media technologies have inherent biases that shape the flow of information and influence social and
political power.

The emergence of social media platforms, such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram, has revolutionized
social interaction and communication. These platforms have enabled individuals to connect with others
across the globe, share information and ideas, and build online communities.

Also , the proliferation of smartphones and mobile devices has further intensified media consumption,
making access to information and entertainment readily available anytime, anywhere. This constant
connectivity has both positive and negative implications for individuals' well-being.

Reviewing Neil Postman (1985) from a scholarly perspective, Postman's book "Amusing Ourselves to
Death" explores the impact of television on public discourse and argues that it has led to a decline in
critical thinking and a focus on entertainment over substance. This historical review highlights the
evolution of media and its profound impact on human experience. From early forms of communication
to the digital age, media has played a crucial role in shaping human thought, communication, and social
interaction. Understanding this historical context is essential for comprehending the current landscape
of media use and its implications for individual and societal well-being

2.2. Media use patterns

Media use refers to the ways in which individuals interact with and consume various forms of media,
including television, radio, newspapers, magazines, books, films, the internet, and social media
platforms. It encompasses both the types of media consumed and the frequency, duration, and context
of consumption.

Media use patterns

Media use patterns are the regularities and consistencies in an individual's or group's media
consumption habits. These patterns can be influenced by a variety of factors, including demographics
(age, gender, socioeconomic status), psychological factors (personality, motivations), social factors
(cultural norms, social interactions), and technological factors (availability of media, accessibility).

Elihu Katz, Jay Blumler, and Michael Gurevitch (1974), with their groundbreaking work on Uses and
Gratifications Theory, laid the foundation for understanding how individuals actively seek out and use
media to fulfill specific needs and gratifications. Their theory emphasizes the active role of the audience
in shaping their media consumption experiences. This framework is particularly relevant to
understanding instrumental use and entertainment use , as it highlights the purposeful and goal-
oriented nature of media engagement.

Sandra Ball-Rokeach and Melvin DeFleur (1976) , with their Media Dependency Theory introduced the
concept that individuals' reliance on media for information and meaning increases when social systems
are in a state of flux. This theory sheds light on how media can play a crucial role in providing
information, social connection, and a sense of stability during times of uncertainty. This perspective is
particularly relevant to understanding how individuals utilize media for **informational use and social
connection during times of crisis or rapid social change.

George Gerbner and his colleagues (2002), with their Cultivation Theory, argued that heavy exposure to
media, particularly television, can shape individuals' perceptions of reality. Their research highlighted
the potential for media to cultivate a distorted view of the world, particularly regarding issues like
violence and crime. This theory has significant implications for understanding the potential impact of
media on individuals' beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors, particularly in relation to **habitual use** and
heavy media consumption.

Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw (1972) , with their Agenda-Setting Theory, proposed that media
can influence public opinion by determining which issues are considered important and newsworthy.
Their research demonstrated the power of media to shape public discourse and influence public
agendas. This theory is particularly relevant to understanding how media can shape public perceptions
of issues and influence informational use as individuals seek out information on topics deemed
important by the media.

Kuss and Griffiths (2011) have conducted extensive research on the phenomenon of problematic
internet use and compulsive media consumption . Their work has highlighted the potential negative
impacts of excessive media use, including addiction, social isolation, and mental health issues. Their
research provides valuable insights into the potential risks associated with certain media use patterns
and the importance of developing strategies for responsible media consumption.

These scholars, through their groundbreaking research and theoretical frameworks, have significantly
contributed to our understanding of media use patterns. Their work continues to inform contemporary
research and has significant implications for media literacy education, media policy, and the
development of strategies for responsible media consumption.

Components of media use patterns

Screen time refers to the amount of time an individual spends interacting with digital screens, such as
smartphones, tablets, computers, and televisions. Screen time can be further categorized into different
types, including:

1. Recreational screen time: Time spent on leisure activities, such as watching videos, playing games, or
browsing social media.

2. Productive screen time:Time spent on tasks that are productive or educational, such as working,
studying, or learning a new skill.

3. Social screen time: Time spent on social media, messaging apps, or video conferencing.

Types of Content Consumption

1. Social Media Content Consumption: This type of content consumption involves accessing and
engaging with social media platforms, such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and TikTok. Social media
content consumption can have both positive and negative effects on psychological well-being,
depending on the type of content consumed and the individual's online interactions.

2. Streaming Service Content Consumption : This type of content consumption involves accessing and
watching video content on streaming services, such as Netflix, YouTube, and Amazon Prime. Streaming
service content consumption can have both positive and negative effects on psychological well-being,
depending on the type of content consumed and the individual's viewing habits.

3. Online Gaming Content Consumption: This type of content consumption involves accessing and
engaging with online gaming platforms, such as Fortnite, Minecraft, and League of Legends. Online
gaming content consumption can have both positive and negative effects on psychological well-being,
depending on the type of games played and the individual's gaming habits. Content consumption is
measured through ;

Self-Report Measures Surveys, questionnaires, and diaries can be used to collect data on content
consumption habits among young adults. Digital Tracking Tools: Software and apps can track digital
content consumption, such as time spent on social media, streaming services, and online gaming
platforms.Physiological Measures : Physiological responses, such as heart rate, skin conductance, or
brain activity, can be used to measure emotional responses to media content among young adults.

Platform usage refers to the specific media platforms that individuals use, such as social media,
streaming services, online gaming platforms, or messaging apps. The type of platform used can have a
significant impact on an individual's media use patterns and subsequent psychological well-being. For
instance, social media platforms like Facebook and Instagram may have different effects on mental
health compared to streaming services like Netflix or YouTube.
Frequency of platform usage refers to how often an individual uses a particular media platform. This can
range from occasional use to frequent or even excessive use. The frequency of platform usage can
influence the level of engagement or intensity an individual exhibits while using the platform. For
example, an individual who uses social media frequently may experience a higher level of intensity or
engagement compared to someone who uses it occasionally.

Intensity of platform usage refers to the level of engagement or involvement an individual exhibits while
using a media platform. This can include factors such as the amount of time spent on the platform, the
level of interaction with others, or the level of emotional investment in the content being consumed.
The intensity of platform usage can have a significant impact on an individual's psychological well-being,
as excessive or intense media use has been linked to negative effects on mental health.

Types of Media Use Patterns:

1. Habitual Use:

This refers to the automatic and repetitive use of media without conscious thought or effort. It becomes
a routine part of daily life, often triggered by specific cues or contexts. For example Checking social
media notifications first thing in the morning or watching television while eating dinner.Anderson and
Dill (2000) have extensively studied habitual media use, emphasizing its role in shaping media
consumption behaviors.Anderson and Dill (2000) are prominent figures in the study of media violence,
particularly focusing on the impact of violent video games. Their research has significantly contributed
to our understanding of how exposure to violent media can influence aggressive thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors.

The General Aggression Model (GAM) which is arguably their most significant contribution. The GAM
proposes a multi-stage process that explains how exposure to violent video games can lead to
aggressive behavior. It emphasizes the role of both short-term and long-term effects

Violent video game play can immediately increase arousal, prime aggressive thoughts, and evoke
hostile feelings in short term effects while in Long-term effects repeated exposure to violent video
games can lead to the development of aggressive scripts and schemas, which influence how individuals
perceive and interpret social situations. These learned scripts can then guide aggressive behavior in real-
world contexts.Also Anderson and Dill's work emphasizes the importance of cognitive processes in
understanding the effects of media violence. They argue that exposure to violent media can influence
how individuals process information, make attributions about others' behavior, and generate solutions
to social problems. The GAM recognizes that individual differences, such as personality traits and prior
experiences, can moderate the effects of media violence. For example, individuals who are already
prone to aggression may be more susceptible to the negative effects of violent video games.

2. Ritualistic Use:

Definition:This involves using media for social and interactive purposes, often within a specific social
context. It can serve as a bonding experience or a shared activity. For example Watching a sporting
event with friends, listening to music together at a party, or discussing a popular TV show with family
members. Katz, Blumler, and Gurevitch (1974) , in their seminal work on Uses and Gratifications Theory,
highlighted the social and relational aspects of media use, which align with the concept of ritualistic use.

3. Instrumental Use:

This is goal-oriented media use, where individuals actively seek out specific information or
entertainment to fulfill a particular need or purpose.For example Searching for news online, watching
educational videos to learn a new skill, or listening to music to improve concentration. The Uses and
Gratifications Theory also emphasizes the active and goal-directed nature of media use, supporting the
concept of instrumental use.

4. Compulsive Use:

This is characterized by excessive and uncontrollable media use, often leading to negative consequences
such as addiction, social isolation, and mental health issues.For example Spending excessive amounts of
time on social media, neglecting responsibilities due to excessive gaming, or experiencing withdrawal
symptoms when unable to access media. Researchers like Kuss and Griffiths (2011)have investigated the
phenomenon of problematic internet use and compulsive media consumption, highlighting its potential
negative impacts.

5. Informational Use:

This involves actively seeking out and processing information from various media sources to stay
informed about current events, expand knowledge, or make informed decisions.Examples include
Reading news articles, watching documentaries, or listening to podcasts on topics of interest. In Agenda-
Setting Theory (McCombs & Shaw, 1972) emphasizes the role of media in shaping public opinion and
influencing information-seeking behaviors.

6. Entertainment Use:

This involves using media primarily for leisure and enjoyment, seeking experiences that are emotionally
stimulating, relaxing, or simply fun. For example Watching movies, listening to music, playing video
games, or browsing social media for entertainment purposes.moreso Uses and Gratifications Theory
acknowledges entertainment as a primary motivation for media use, emphasizing the role of media in
providing enjoyment and escapism.These are just a few of the many media use patterns that have been
identified and studied by researchers. Understanding these patterns can help us better understand how
individuals interact with media and the potential impacts of media consumption on various aspects of
their lives. Meanwhile it is important to remember that these patterns are not mutually exclusive, and
individuals may exhibit multiple patterns depending on the context, their individual needs, and the
specific media they are using.
Factors Influencing Media Use Patterns

Media use patterns are not random occurrences; they are shaped by a complex interplay of factors that
influence how individuals engage with various forms of media. These factors can be broadly categorized
into demographic, psychographic, social, and technological influences.

Demographic Factors:

Age significantly influences media preferences. Younger generations, for example, are more likely to
embrace digital media and social networking platforms, while older generations may prefer traditional
media like television and print. Studies by Pew Research Center (2023) consistently demonstrate
significant age gaps in social media usage, with younger generations exhibiting higher levels of
engagement on platforms like TikTok and Instagram.Gender is also another demographic factor ,
Research has shown that men and women often exhibit distinct media consumption patterns. For
instance, men may be more likely to engage with sports and gaming, while women may show a greater
interest in reality TV and social media platforms focused on fashion and beauty. Studies by UNESCO
(2018)have highlighted gender disparities in media access and usage, with women often facing greater
challenges in accessing and utilizing media technologies.Access to technology and media varies across
socioeconomic groups. Individuals with higher socioeconomic status tend to have greater access to a
wider range of media options and may exhibit different consumption patterns compared to those with
lower socioeconomic status.Research by Van Dijk (2006)** has shown that socioeconomic disparities
can significantly impact media access and usage, with individuals from lower socioeconomic
backgrounds often facing greater challenges in accessing and utilizing media technologies.Education
level can influence media literacy skills, critical thinking abilities, and the types of media individuals
choose to consume. Individuals with higher education levels may be more likely to engage with news
and documentary content, while those with lower education levels may be more drawn to
entertainment media.Studies by Newman et al. (2011) have found that individuals with higher levels of
education are more likely to engage with news and current affairs content across various media
platforms.

Psychographic Factors:

Personality traits such as extraversion, introversion, openness to experience, and neuroticism can
influence media preferences. For example, individuals high in extraversion may be more likely to engage
in social media and seek out opportunities for social interaction through media, while those high in
neuroticism may be more drawn to media that provides comfort and escapism .Research by McPherson
et al. (2006) has shown that personality traits can significantly predict media use patterns, with
individuals high in extraversion exhibiting greater engagement on social media platforms.Individual
values and attitudes towards media can significantly shape media consumption patterns. For instance,
individuals who value information and knowledge may be more likely to engage with news and
documentary content, while those who value entertainment and relaxation may be more drawn to
movies, music, and gaming.Studies by Palmgreen and Rayburn (1986) have highlighted the role of
individual values and attitudes in shaping media use motivations and preferences.Lifestyle factors, such
as occupation, hobbies, and interests, can also influence media choices. For example, individuals who
are physically active may be more likely to engage with sports media, while those with a passion for
music may be more likely to listen to music streaming services and attend concerts. Research by Hoffner
and Grunig (1997) has demonstrated that lifestyle factors can significantly influence media use patterns,
with individuals seeking out media content that aligns with their personal interests and hobbies.

Social Factors:

Social norms and peer influence can play a significant role in shaping media consumption patterns.
Individuals may be influenced by their peers' media choices and may conform to social norms regarding
media consumption. Studies by Katz and Lazarsfeld (1955) have highlighted the role of social networks
and interpersonal communication in shaping media use patterns.Family media use patterns can have a
lasting impact on children's media consumption habits. Parents' media choices, attitudes towards media,
and the availability of media within the home environment can all influence children's media use.
Research by Rideout et al. (2010) has shown that parental media use and media rules can significantly
influence children's media consumption habits. Cultural values, beliefs, and traditions can also shape
media preferences and consumption patterns. For example, cultural norms regarding gender roles may
influence the types of media that men and women are expected to consume.Studies by Hall (1977) have
explored the role of cultural factors in shaping media representations and audience interpretations.

Technological Factors:

The availability of media technologies and content can significantly influence media use patterns. The
proliferation of smartphones and the internet has led to a dramatic shift in media consumption habits,
with individuals increasingly turning to digital platforms for news, entertainment, and social
interaction.Research by Hampton et al. (2009) has demonstrated the significant impact of the internet
and social media on media consumption patterns in recent years.Access to technology and media can
vary depending on factors such as geographic location, socioeconomic status, and technological literacy.
Individuals with limited access to technology may have restricted media consumption options. Studies
by Howard et al. (2010) have highlighted the digital divide and the challenges faced by individuals with
limited access to technology and the internet.The constant evolution of media technologies, such as the
development of high-definition television, streaming services, and virtual reality, can lead to changes in
media consumption patterns. Research by jenkins (2006 has explored the impact of new media
technologies on audience engagement and participation.
Research on Media Use Patterns:

Numerous studies have examined media use patterns, focusing on various aspects such as:

1. Media Consumption Trends:

Media consumption has undergone a dramatic transformation, with a pronounced shift from traditional
media like television and print to digital platforms. Studies by the Pew Research Center (2023)
consistently demonstrate a decline in traditional media consumption, with younger generations
increasingly turning to digital platforms for news, entertainment, and social interaction. For instance,
newspaper readership has significantly declined, while online news consumption has surged. Similarly,
streaming services have surpassed cable television in terms of viewership in many regions.The rise of
smartphones and the widespread availability of high-speed internet have been key drivers of these
shifts. These technologies have empowered individuals with greater control over their media
consumption, allowing them to access content on demand, personalize their media experiences, and
engage with media in more interactive ways.

Understanding these shifting trends is crucial for researchers, advertisers, and policymakers. It
necessitates adapting research methodologies to capture the nuances of digital media consumption,
including tracking online behavior, analyzing social media data, and understanding the evolving role of
algorithms in shaping media experiences.

2. Media Multitasking:

Media multitasking, the simultaneous use of multiple media devices and platforms, has become
increasingly prevalent in today's digital age. Individuals may be watching television while browsing social
media, listening to music while working, or texting while driving.

Studies by Ophir et al. (2009) have shown that media multitasking can impair cognitive function, such
as attention, memory, and task performance. Research suggests that media multitasking can have
negative impacts on attention and focus, leading to reduced cognitive capacity and increased
distractibility. This can have implications for academic performance, workplace productivity, and overall
well-being.

Research on media multitasking needs to consider the complex interplay between different media
platforms, the cognitive demands of each task, and individual differences in multitasking abilities.
Longitudinal studies are needed to understand the long-term effects of media multitasking on cognitive
development and mental health.
3. Social Media Use:

Social and Psychological Impacts:** Social media has profoundly impacted social interactions, mental
health, and political engagement. Studies by Kross et al. (2013) have shown that Facebook use can be
associated with feelings of envy and social comparison, potentially impacting self-esteem and well-
being. Research by Bail et al. (2018) has highlighted the role of social media in the spread of
misinformation and the polarization of political discourse.

Excessive social media use has been linked to increased anxiety, depression, and loneliness. The curated
nature of social media platforms can create a distorted perception of reality and contribute to feelings
of inadequacy and social comparison.Social media platforms can facilitate political mobilization and civic
engagement, providing opportunities for individuals to connect with like-minded individuals, participate
in online activism, and access diverse perspectives. However, social media can also contribute to the
spread of misinformation, the formation of echo chambers, and the polarization of political discourse.

4. Media Literacy:

Media literacy refers to the ability to critically evaluate and interpret media messages. It involves
understanding how media are constructed, recognizing biases and stereotypes, and developing the skills
to critically analyze and evaluate information.In the age of information overload, media literacy is more
crucial than ever. It empowers individuals to navigate the digital landscape, distinguish between credible
and unreliable information, and become informed and engaged citizens.Media literacy education should
be integrated into educational curricula at all levels. It should equip students with the knowledge and
skills to critically analyze media messages, evaluate information sources, and become responsible and
informed media consumers.

Media use and media use patterns are complex and multifaceted phenomena that have significant
implications for individuals, society, and culture. By understanding the factors that influence media use,
researchers and practitioners can develop effective strategies for media literacy education, media policy,
and media advocacy.

Concept of psychological well being

Psychological well-being encompasses an individual's overall mental health and emotional state. It's
more than just the absence of mental illness; it involves a sense of contentment, fulfillment, and overall
satisfaction with life.

Key component

Emotional Well-being involves experiencing positive emotions, such as joy, happiness, and contentment,
while also effectively managing negative emotions like sadness, anger, and anxiety. Lyubomirsky,
Sheldon, & Schkade (2005) emphasize the importance of positive emotions in fostering psychological
well-being, suggesting that cultivating positive emotions can lead to increased happiness and life
satisfaction.

Psychological Well-being focuses on the individual's cognitive and emotional functioning, including self-
acceptance, personal growth, purpose in life, autonomy, environmental mastery, and positive
relationships.Ryff (1989 ) developed a comprehensive model of psychological well-being, outlining six
key dimensions: self-acceptance, positive relations, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life,
and personal growth.

Social Well-being encompasses the quality of an individual's social relationships and their ability to
connect with others meaningfully. It involves strong social support networks, healthy relationships, and
a sense of belonging.Baumeister & Leary (1995) argue that humans have a fundamental need for
belongingness, and that strong social connections are crucial for psychological well-being.

Factors Influencing Psychological Well-being:

1. Genetics:

Genetic factors can play a significant role in predisposing individuals to certain mental health
conditions, which can undoubtedly impact their overall psychological well-being. These conditions, such
as depression, anxiety, and bipolar disorder, can have a profound effect on an individual's emotional
state, cognitive functioning, and social interactions. Family history of depression can increase an
individual's susceptibility to developing depressive symptoms.

Twin studies and family studies have consistently demonstrated the heritability of various mental health
conditions, highlighting the role of genetic factors in their development. (**Kendler, K. S., & Prescott, C.
A. (1999). Genes, environment, and psychopathology: Understanding the interplay.** *American
Journal of Psychiatry, 156*(6), 84-91.)

2. Lifestyle:

Lifestyle choices significantly impact psychological well-being. A healthy lifestyle, characterized by

regular physical activity, a balanced diet, and sufficient sleep, can significantly enhance mental and
emotional health. Conversely, unhealthy lifestyle choices, such as excessive alcohol consumption,
substance abuse, and poor dietary habits, can negatively impact mental well-being. Regular exercise has
been shown to reduce stress, improve mood, and enhance cognitive function. (**Blumenthal, J. A.,
Hoffman, B. M., Babyak, M., Craighead, W. E., Herman, S., Khatri, P., ... & Sherwood, A. (1999). Exercise
training for depression.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67*(3), 372.)Numerous studies
have demonstrated the positive impact of healthy lifestyle choices on mental health. For example,
research by Reid, K. D., Duncan, T. E., & Larson, D. B. (2007)has shown that regular physical activity can
effectively reduce symptoms of depression and anxiety.

3. Social Support:

Strong social connections and supportive relationships are crucial for psychological well-being. Social
support provides individuals with a sense of belonging, emotional comfort, and practical assistance
during times of stress. Having close friends, family members, or a supportive community can provide
emotional support, reduce feelings of loneliness, and enhance self-esteem.Baumeister & Leary (1995)
emphasized the fundamental human need for belongingness, arguing that strong social connections are
essential for psychological well-being. Research by Cohen (2004) has demonstrated that social support
can buffer the negative impacts of stress and promote resilience.

4. Stress Management:

Effective stress management techniques are vital for maintaining emotional balance and promoting
psychological well-being. These techniques can include mindfulness meditation, deep breathing
exercises, yoga, and progressive muscle relaxation. Mindfulness practices can help individuals become
more aware of their thoughts and emotions, allowing them to manage stress more effectively. Research
by Kabat-Zinn (1990) has demonstrated the effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction
techniques in reducing stress, anxiety, and depression.

5. Meaning and Purpose:

Finding meaning and purpose in life can contribute significantly to a sense of fulfillment and overall
well-being. This can involve pursuing personal goals, engaging in meaningful work, contributing to
society, or connecting with something larger than oneself. Volunteering for a charitable organization,
pursuing a passion, or engaging in creative endeavors can provide a sense of purpose and meaning in
life. Baumeister & Vohs (2004) have emphasized the importance of meaning and purpose in human life,
arguing that they are fundamental human needs. Research by Steger, M. F., Frazier, P., Oishi, S., & Kaler,
M. (2006) has explored the relationship between meaning in life and well-being, finding that individuals
with a strong sense of purpose tend to experience greater life satisfaction and well-being.

The Relationship between media use patterns and psychological wellbeing

The relationship between media use patterns and psychological well-being is complex and multifaced .
While media can offer numerous benefits, such as social connection, access to information, and
entertainment, excessive or problematic use can have detrimental effects on mental health.

Psychological wellbeing indicators:

Stress

Stress is a common psychological well-being indicator that refers to a state of mental or emotional strain
caused by adverse circumstances. Chronic stress can have negative effects on both physical and mental
health, including anxiety, depression, and cardiovascular disease. In the context of media use, excessive
screen time, social media use, and exposure to disturbing or violent content can contribute to increased
stress levels among young adults.

Anxiety

Anxiety is another psychological well-being indicator that refers to a feeling of worry, nervousness, or
unease about something with an uncertain outcome. Anxiety can manifest in various forms, including
social anxiety, generalized anxiety, and anxiety disorders. Media use patterns, such as excessive social
media use, online harassment, or exposure to disturbing content, can contribute to increased anxiety
levels among young adults.

Life Satisfaction:

Life satisfaction is a psychological well-being indicator that refers to an individual's overall satisfaction
with their life, including their relationships, work, and leisure activities. Life satisfaction is a key
component of subjective well-being, which encompasses an individual's cognitive and affective
evaluations of their life. Media use patterns, such as excessive screen time or social media use, can
negatively impact life satisfaction by reducing face-to-face social interactions, increasing comparisons
with others, and decreasing engagement in meaningful activities.

Potential Positive Impacts:

Social Connection:Social media platforms can facilitate social interaction, allowing individuals to connect
with friends and family, build communities, and find support networks.Studies by Hampton et al.
(2009)have shown that online social networks can enhance social capital and facilitate the formation of
new social relationships.

Access to Information and Support: Media can provide access to valuable information and support
resources, such as mental health information, online support groups, and crisis hotlines.Research by
Kessler et al. (2001) has demonstrated the effectiveness of online support groups in providing social
support and improving mental health outcomes for individuals with mental health conditions.
Entertainment and Relaxation: Media can provide a source of entertainment and relaxation, helping
individuals to unwind, reduce stress, and improve mood. Studies by Oliver and Shapiro (1997) have
shown that music listening can have positive effects on mood and reduce stress levels.

Enhanced Cognitive Function:

Engaging with intellectually stimulating media content, such as documentaries, educational videos, and
online courses, can enhance cognitive function, improve memory, and increase knowledge. Studies
have shown that engaging with intellectually stimulating content can improve cognitive skills such as
attention, memory, and problem-solving abilities.

Entertainment and Stress Reduction:

Media can provide a source of entertainment and relaxation, helping individuals to unwind, reduce
stress, and improve mood. Engaging with enjoyable media content, such as music, movies, and games,
can provide a temporary escape from daily stressors and promote emotional well-being.Studies by
Oliver and Shapiro (1997) have shown that music listening can have positive effects on mood and reduce
stress levels.

Self-Expression and Creativity:

Media platforms provide opportunities for self-expression and creative exploration. Individuals can
share their thoughts, feelings, and experiences through blogging, vlogging, creating art, and engaging in
other forms of creative expression. Engaging in creative activities has been shown to have numerous
mental health benefits, including reducing stress, improving mood, and enhancing self-esteem.

Potential Negative Impacts:

Social Comparison and Low Self-Esteem: Exposure to idealized and curated content on social media can
lead to social comparison and feelings of inadequacy, negatively impacting self-esteem and body image.
Research by Kross et al. (2013) has shown that Facebook use can be associated with increased feelings
of envy and social comparison, potentially impacting self-esteem and well-being.

Anxiety and Depression: Excessive social media use, particularly passive consumption, has been linked to
increased anxiety, depression, and loneliness.Studies by **Twenge et al. (2018) have shown an
association between increased social media use and increased rates of depression and anxiety among
adolescents.

Sleep Disturbances:The use of electronic devices before bed can disrupt sleep patterns, leading to sleep
deprivation and negatively impacting mood and cognitive function.Research by Chellappa et al. (2014)
has shown that exposure to electronic devices before bedtime can interfere with sleep quality and
increase the risk of sleep disorders.

Cyberbullying and Online Harassment: Online harassment and cyberbullying can have a significant
negative impact on mental health, leading to anxiety, depression, and even self-harm. Studies by
Hinduja and Patchin (2010) have highlighted the prevalence and impact of cyberbullying on adolescent
mental health.

However , the impact of media use on psychological well-being varies significantly across individuals.
Factors such as personality traits, coping mechanisms, and social support can influence how individuals
respond to media experiences.The relationship between media use and psychological well-being is
complex and influenced by various factors, such as the type of media used, the frequency and duration
of use, and the individual's motivations for using media

The relationship between media use patterns and psychological well-being is multifaced While media
can offer numerous benefits, excessive or problematic use can have detrimental effects on mental
health.

The relationship between media use and psychological well-being is complex and multifaceted. While
excessive or problematic use can have detrimental effects, media can also offer numerous benefits that
positively impact mental health.

Intersectionality

The intersectionality of media use patterns and psychological well-being highlights how these two
factors interact and influence each other within the complex web of individual experiences, social
identities, and societal structures. Key Intersections include :

Socioeconomic Status and Media Access: Individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds may face
limited access to technology and the internet, restricting their media consumption options and
potentially exacerbating social isolation and feelings of disenfranchisement. Conversely, excessive
exposure to idealized lifestyles portrayed in media can contribute to feelings of inadequacy and social
comparison among individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. Research by Van Dijk (2006) has
shown that socioeconomic disparities can significantly impact media access and usage, with individuals
from lower socioeconomic backgrounds often facing greater challenges in accessing and utilizing media
technologies.

Gender and Media Representation: Media often perpetuates harmful gender stereotypes, which can
negatively impact body image, self-esteem, and mental health. Women and girls may be
disproportionately exposed to unrealistic beauty standards and objectification in media, contributing to
body image issues and anxiety. Studies by Grabe et al. (2008) have shown that exposure to idealized
media images can negatively impact women's body image and contribute to body dissatisfaction.

Race and Ethnicity: Media representations of racial and ethnic minorities are often limited and
stereotypical, which can contribute to feelings of marginalization, exclusion, and low self-esteem among
minority groups. Exposure to biased or discriminatory media content can reinforce negative stereotypes
and contribute to prejudice and discrimination. Research by Entman (1992) has highlighted the
presence of racial bias in media representations, which can have significant impacts on public
perceptions and social attitudes.

Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity:LGBTQ+ individuals may experience unique challenges related to
media use, such as exposure to cyberbullying, discrimination, and negative stereotypes. Online
platforms can also provide a space for LGBTQ+ individuals to connect with supportive communities and
find information and resources related to their identities. Studies by Hinduja and Patchin (2010) have
highlighted the prevalence and impact of cyberbullying on LGBTQ+ youth, which can have significant
negative impacts on mental health.

Disability:Individuals with disabilities may face barriers to accessing and using certain media
technologies. They may also experience limited representation in media, which can contribute to
feelings of isolation and exclusion. Research by Nosek et al. (2004)has shown that people with
disabilities are often underrepresented and misrepresented in media, which can contribute to social
stigma and exclusion.

By acknowledging the intersectionality of media use patterns and psychological well-being, researchers
can gain a more nuanced and comprehensive understanding of the complex factors that influence
mental health outcomes in the digital age. This understanding is crucial for developing effective
interventions that promote mental health and well-being for all individuals, regardless of their social
identities and experiences.

Empirical review

A study on The trends in adolescent mental health in the united state was carried out by Twenge et al.
(2018). The goal of the study was to examine trends in adolescent mental health in the united States
and Investigate trends in adolescent mental health in Nigeria alongside the rise of smartphone and
social media use . Unlike this current study that would focus on young adults especially university
undergraduates . The study Analyzed large-scale datasets on adolescent mental health trends in the
United States and employed a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative data (e.g., surveys on
mental health and social media use) with qualitative data (e.g., focus group discussions with Nigerian
adolescents) to gain a deeper understanding of their experiences similar to this current study.
In his research on the association between social media use and depressive symptoms in adolescents
by primack et al . The study examines the association between specific social media platforms popular
in Nigeria (e.g., WhatsApp, Instagram, TikTok) and depressive symptoms among Nigerian adolescents
similar to the objectives of the current study . The study Utilized cross-sectional surveys to assess social
media use and depressive symptoms. Employ a similar cross-sectional survey design, adapting the
survey instruments to reflect the specific social media platforms and cultural contexts relevant to
Nigerian adolescents like this study which adopt a mixed method approaches .

A study carried out by Valkenburg and Peter (2010) on the role of social media in social capital
development. The study Investigates how different forms of social media engagement (e.g., active
participation in online communities, direct messaging, video calls) impact social capital and loneliness
among Nigerian adolescents. The study Utilized a variety of methods, including surveys and interviews
similar to the current study , it employed a mixed-methods approach, incorporating qualitative methods
to explore the nuanced ways in which Nigerian adolescents use social media for social connection.

Kross et al. (2013) In his study examined the impact of Facebook use on emotional well-being,
specifically focusing on social comparison. The aim of the study was to investigate the impact of
exposure to idealized lifestyles on popular Nigerian social media platforms (e.g., Instagram, TikTok) on
body image, self-esteem, and other aspects of psychological well-being among Nigerian young adults
similar to the current study The study used experimental and correlational designs. The study
employed a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative data (e.g., surveys, social media data
analysis) with qualitative data to gain a deeper understanding of the impact of social comparison on
Nigerian young adults similar to the current study.

A study carried out by Valkenburg and Peter (2010) on the importance of active social media use for
positive social outcomes. The goal of the study was to investigate the relationship between active and
passive social media use and psychological well-being among Nigerian adults similar to the current study
whose focus gears towards media use and psychological wellbeing considering the specific forms of
active and passive use prevalent in the Nigerian context. The study Utilized a variety of methods,
including surveys and interviews like this current study . The study employed a similar approach,
incorporating questions that specifically explore the types of social media activities engaged in by
Nigerian adolescents (e.g., active participation in online discussions, creating content, direct messaging).

A study on the importance of media literacy skills in navigating the digital works conducted by Van Dijk
(2006) . The study emphasized the importance of media literacy skills in navigating the digital world.
The study Investigated the relationship between media literacy skills and psychological well-being
among Nigerian adolescents, considering factors such as critical thinking abilities, digital literacy, and the
ability to evaluate information critically. The study adopted a variety of methods, including surveys and
interviews similar to the current study . The study employed a mixed-methods approach, incorporating
assessments of media literacy skills and measures of psychological well-being among Nigerian
adolescents.

Theoretical framework

1. Uses and Gratifications Theory

This theory, developed by Katz, Blumler, and Gurevitch (1974), posits that individuals actively seek out
and use media to fulfill specific needs and gratifications. It emphasizes the active role of the audience in
shaping their media consumption experiences.

This framework helps understand why individuals engage with specific types of media. By identifying
the motivations behind media use (e.g., seeking information, social connection, entertainment,
relaxation), researchers can better understand the potential impact of media on psychological well-
being. For example, if an individual primarily uses social media to connect with friends and family, their
experience may be more positive compared to someone who primarily uses it for passive consumption
and social comparison.Research can investigate how different gratifications sought from media use (e.g.,
social interaction vs. entertainment) relate to different psychological outcomes (e.g., loneliness,
happiness, self-esteem).

2. Media Ecology Theory

Developed by Marshall McLuhan (1964), this theory suggests that the medium itself, rather than the
content, shapes human experience and cognition. It argues that different media technologies have
unique "biases" that influence how we perceive, think, and interact with the world. This framework
helps understand how the characteristics of different media platforms can influence psychological well-
being. For example, the immediacy and constant connectivity of social media platforms may contribute
to feelings of anxiety and FOMO (fear of missing out). The passive nature of television viewing may
contribute to a sense of disengagement and reduced attention spans. Research can investigate how the
characteristics of different media platforms (e.g., interactivity, immediacy, social presence) relate to
different psychological outcomes, such as attention, focus, and social connectedness.

These two theoretical frameworks provide valuable lenses for examining the complex relationship
between media use and psychological well-being.By integrating these theoretical perspectives,the study
would gain a more nuanced understanding of the multifaceted relationship between media use and
psychological well-being, leading to more insightful research findings and a better understanding of the
impact of media on individuals in the digital age.
CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 preamble

This chapter focuses on the methodology used for the purpose of this study. This comprises of the
research design, population if the study, sample size and selection technique, data collection
instrument, as well as validity and reliability of the aforementioned instrument. Additionally, it
elaborates on data collection method and the manner in which data is presented and analyzed. The
purpose of this chapter is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the research methodology, thus
facilitating the readers’ evaluation of the study’s vigor and validity

3.1 Research Design

Research design is blueprints that direct the arrangement of parameters for data collection and analysis
in a way that tries to balance procedural economy with relevance to the research goal (Nwaoboli,
2022b). "Research design is a strategic framework for action that serves as a bridge between research
questions and the execution or implementation of the research," state Terre, Blanche, and Durrheim
(2002. P, 29). A research design is a comprehensive plan, structure, or strategy for accumulating data
with the aim of answering several research questions, according to Cooper & Schindler (2014).

A Descriptive Survey research method was adopted for the research. According to Asemah, Gujbawu,
Ekhareafo & Okpanachi (2022, p. 100), Survey is conducted to collect and analyse social, economic,
psychological and other types of data; it is based on interviewing people (respondents) and they must
be representative enough of the research population being studied for it to be worthwhile This
approach is appropriate considering that the goal of the research which is to determine the . " MEDIA
USE AND WELL BEING-The relationship between media use patterns (e.g screen time, content
consumption) and psychological well being indicators (e.g stress, anxiety, life satisfaction) among young
adults.

3.2 Population of the Study

Population of a study is a collection or set of individuals or objects whose properties are to be analysed
(Nwaoboli, 2023a). According to Wimmer and Domink (2011, p. 15) Population refers to ―a group or
class of subjects, variables, concepts, or phenomena. According to Marzcyk, DeMatteo, and Festinger
(2005), the population of a study is the appropriate number of individuals who fall inside the purview of
the investigation. This is typically determined by the study's objective, the research questions, or more
specifically, the questions the research is intended to address.
 The population of this study are the undergraduate students of the mass communication department
of the University of Benin. The 100 level students are a total of 230, 200 level students a total of 232,
300 level students a total of 184, 400 level students a total of 236. The population of this study is
882.This data is gotten from the class representatives of each class.

3.3 Sample Size

Sample size describes a demographic subset chosen for a specific study and of interest to the researcher
(Nwaoboli & Asemah, 2021; 2023; Ovie & Nwaoboli, 2022). The sample size helps to ensure that the
researcher is able to investigate members of the population, and derive generalizable findings from the
study. Data obtained from the Student Affairs Department of the university puts the current population
of undergraduates in university of Benin, Benin City at 77,000 students.

According to Yamane (1967) sample size can be determined by the following formula.

n= N

1+N (e)2

Where

n= sample size

N= total population (882)

e= level of precision or error limit (0.10)

1= Constant

n=882/[1+882(0.10)2]

n=882/[1+882(0.01)]

n=882/[1+8.82]

n=882/9.82

n= 89.8

Therefore n=89.8 which is approximately 90.

3.4 Sampling Techniques

According to Asemah, Gujbawu, Ekhareafo & Okpanachi (2022, p. 134), Sampling is the process
of selecting part of a population and using it to represent the entire population. Sampling involves the
researcher securing a representation from the larger population group.
 The sampling technique used in the data collection process is the simple random sampling technique.
Asika (2000) says it is the most fundamental method of probability sampling. It implies the selection of
data in such a way that each event in the population has an equal opportunity for selection.

Sample size= 90

Level of students= 4

Hence. 90/4 = 23

Following the calculations, each level of students would be allocated 23 questionnaires each.

3.5 Instrument for Data Collection

The research instrument is the document designed and used to gather relevant data needed for the
study (Nwaoboli, Ezeji & Osife-Kurex, 2022). Due to the research design adopted — Survey Research
Design, the researcher adopts Questionnaire as the instrument of primary data collection.

Since this research adopts a mixed-methods approach, combining both quantitative and qualitative
data collection and analysis methods.

A questionnaire is a research instrument that designed to elicit views of respondents (population) on a

particular topic. Bello and Ajayi (2000) a questionnaire is a series of relevant questions sometimes
statements which are usually used to elicit information from target population of a given study. The
questionnaire was divided into two main parts, namely, Section A and Section B. Section A focuses on
collecting information related to the demographic characteristics of the participants, while Section B
was concerned with gathering data on the research topic. An interview is a research instrument used to
collect qualitative data through direct, personal interaction between the researcher and the participant.
It involves a conversation between the researcher and the participant, where the researcher asks
questions and the participant responds with their thoughts, feelings, and experiences. The interview will
be conducted with the aid of an interview guide . An interview guide is a valuable tool used to conduct
in-depth interviews with participants in a research study. It is a list of open-ended questions, topics, or
themes that serve as a framework for the conversation. The interview guide provides a structured
approach to data collection, ensuring that all participants are asked the same questions, which helps to
maintain consistency and comparability across interviews.

3.6 Validity and reliability of Research Instrument

Validity is stated by Mytton (2007: p. 72) as the characteristic of a questionnaire that guarantees
that what is measured or described accurately represents reality. The study instrument was given to the
project supervisor, who validated it, to assure validity. Before giving the questionnaire to responders,
comments and corrections—including those for incorrect numbering and spelling—were considered and
made. The project supervisor made these adjustments to ensure the instrument's content validity. The
exercise's goal was to raise the instrument's level of quality in regard to the study questions and
hypotheses.

3.7. Reliability of research Instrument

To forestall measurement error, which when the instrument is faulty. the reliability of the research
instrument was ensured through its careful construction and pre-test. pre-test was done by conducting
a pilot survey wherein the research instrument was administered to a part (sample) of the population to
find possible faults in the study. 15 questionnaires which represent 3.8% of the sample were
administered to respondents to find out if the instrument of data collection is effective enough in
measuring and sampling the opinions of respondents’ understudy.

3.8. Method of Data Collection

The questionnaire was the primary data gathering tool used in this investigation. The questionnaire was
distributed via mail to the respondens while interview will also be conducted with the interview guide to
gather more depth information on the study .

3.9. Method of Data Analysis

The completed copies of questionnaire were be collated, coded and analyzed using simple statistical
scale of percentages. In the study, data for this research will be presented in various formats which
include tables, bar graph, pie charts and pictorial presentations and descriptive statistics and frequency
analysis were used to categorize the responses. The responses were coded in simple percentages by the
use of this formula percentage score to study further attitudes and perceptions.

Number of Respondents 100

___________________ ______

Total of Respondents 1

This were the basis on which this research were analyzed .