20

Integrating both side, we get,

This is the integral function of input voltage.

5. OP AMP DIFFERENTIATOR

Differentiator is an op amp based circuit, whose output signal is proportional to differentiation of input [Link]
op amp differentiator is basically an inverting amplifier with a capacitor of suitable value at its input terminal.
The figure below shows the basic circuit diagram of an op amp differentiator.

We will first assume that the op amp used here is an ideal op amp. We know that the voltage at both inverting and
non inverting terminals of an ideal op amp is same. As the electric potential at non inverting terminal is zero since
it is grounded. The electric potential of inverting terminal is also zero, as the opamp is ideal. Because, we know
that the electric potential at non – inverting and inverting terminals. It is also known to us that the current entering
through inverting and non inverting terminal of an ideal op amp is zero.
Considering, these conditions of an ideal op amp, if we apply Kirchhoff Current Law at node 1 of the op amp
differentiator circuit, we get,

The above equation shows that the output voltage is the derivative of the input voltage.
OPAMP PARAMETERS:
[Link]-MODE REJECTION RATIO
 21

[Link] OFFSET VOLTAGE :

The input offset voltage (VIO) is a parameter defining the differential DC voltage required between the
inputs of an amplifier, especially an operational amplifier (op-amp), to make the output zero (for voltage
amplifiers, 0 volts with respect to ground or between differential outputs. The manufacturer’s specification
sheet provides a value of VIO for the op-amp. An ideal op-amp amplifies the differential input; if this input
difference is 0 volts (i.e. both inputs are at the same voltage), the output should be zero. However, due to
manufacturing process, the differential input transistors of real op-amps may not be exactly matched. This
causes the output to be zero at a non-zero value of differential input, called the input offset voltage. To
determine the effect of this input voltage on the output, consider the connection shown in figure given below:
Using Vo = AVi, we can write:

Equation shows how the output offset voltage results from a specified input offset voltage for a typical
amplifier connection of the op-amp.

3.
 22

[Link] OFFSET CURRENT:

It is the algebraic difference between the currents into the noninverting and inverting terminals of OPAMP.

[Link] OFFSET VOLTAGE DUE TO INPUT OFFSET CURRENT:IIO

An output offset voltage will also result due to any difference in dc bias currents at both inputs. Since the
two input transistors are never exactly matched, each will operate at a slightly different current. For typical
op-amp connection, such as that shown in Fig., an output offset voltage can be determined as follows.
Replacing the bias currents through the input resistors by the voltage drop that each develops, as shown in
Fig., we can determine the expression for the resulting output voltage. Using superposition, the output
+
voltage due to input bias current 𝐼𝐼𝐵 ,denoted by 𝑉𝑂+ is
 23

6. GAIN–BANDWIDTH

Because of the internal compensation circuitry included in an op-amp, the voltage gain drops off as frequency
increases. Op-amp specifications provide a description of the gain versus bandwidth. Figure given below
provides a plot of gain versus frequency for a typical op-amp. At low frequency down to dc operation the
gain is that value listed by the manufacturer’s specification AVD (voltage differential gain) and is typically a
very large value. As the frequency of the input signal increases the open-loop gain drops off until it finally
reaches the value of 1 (unity). The frequency at this gain value is specified by the manufacturer as the unity-
gain bandwidth, B1. While this value is a frequency (see Fig. )at which the gain becomes 1, it can be
considered a bandwidth, since the frequency band from 0 Hz to the unity-gain frequency is also a bandwidth.
One could therefore refer to the point at which the gain reduces to 1 as the unity-gain frequency ( f1) or unity-
gain bandwidth (B1).


Another frequency of interest is that shown in Fig. at which the gain drops by 3 dB (or to 0.707 the dc
gain, AVD), this being the cutoff frequency of the op-amp, fC. In fact, the unity-gain frequency and cutoff
frequency are related by

Equation shows that the unity-gain frequency may also be called the gain–bandwidth product of the op-
amp.
[Link] RATE:
 24

Pin Diagram of an Op Amp IC

The op amp IC we are going to discuss about here is IC 741. It is an 8 pin IC. The pin configuration of IC 741 is
given below

PIN 1 – Offset Null

PIN 2 – Inverting input
PIN 3 – non- inverting input
PIN 4 – negative voltage supply
PIN 5 – offset null
PIN 6 – output
PIN 7 – positive voltage supply
PIN 8 – not connected

Block Diagram Of Operational Amplifier (Op-amp)

 25

The op-amp begins with a differential amplifier stage, which operates in the differential mode. Thus the inputs
noted with ‘+’ & ‘- ‘ .

The positive sign is for the non-inverting input and negative is for the inverting input. The non-inverting input is
the ac signal (or dc) applied to the differential amplifier which produces the same polarity of the signal at the
output of op-amp. The inverting signal input is the ac signal (or dc) applied to the differential amplifier. This
produces a 180 degrees out of phase signal at the output.

The inverting and non-inverting inputs are provided to the input stage which is a dual input, balanced output
differential amplifier. The voltage gain required for the amplifier is provided in this stage along with the input
resistance for the op-amp. The output of the initial stage is given to the intermediate stage, which is driven by the
output of the input stage.

In this stage direct coupling is used, which makes the dc voltage at the output of the intermediate stage above
ground potential. Therefore, the dc level at its output must be shifted down to 0Volts with respect to the ground.
For this, the level shifting stage is used where usually an emitter follower with the constant current source is
applied. The level shifted signal is then given to the output stage where a push-pull amplifier increases the output
voltage swing of the signal and also increases the current supplying capability of the op-amp.
 26

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE:
Definition of Semiconductor
The materials that are neither conductor nor insulator with energy gap of about 1 eV (electron volt) are called
semiconductors.
Most common materials commercially used as semiconductors are germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si) because of
their property to withstand high temperature. That means there will be no significant change in energy gap with
changing [Link] relation between energy gap and absolute temperature for Si and Ge are given as,

Where, T = absolute temperature in oK

Assuming room temperature to be 300oK,

At room temperature resistivity of semiconductor is in between insulators and conductors. Semiconductors show
negative temperature coefficient of resistivity that means its resistance decreases with increase in temperature.
Both Si and Ge are elements of IV group, i.e. both elements have four valence electrons. Both form the covalent
bond with the neighboring atom. At absolute zero temperature both behave like an insulator, i.e. the valence band
is full while conduction band is empty but as the temperature is raised more and more covalent bonds break and
electrons are set free and jump to the conduction band.
Intrinsic Semiconductors

As per theory of semiconductor, semiconductor in its pure form is called as intrinsic semiconductor. In pure
semiconductor number of electrons (n) is equal to number of holes (p) and thus conductivity is very low as
valence electrons are covalent bonded. In this case we write n = p = ni, where ni is called the intrinsic
concentration. It can be shown that ni can be written

Where, n0 is a constant, T is the absolute temperature, VG is the semiconductor

band gap voltage, and VT is the thermal voltage.
The thermal voltage is related to the temperature by V T = kT/q
Where, k is the Boltzmann constant (k = 1.381 × 10 − 23 J/K).

Extrinsic Semiconductors

As per theory of semiconductor, impure semiconductors are called extrinsic semiconductors. Extrinsic
semiconductor is formed by adding a small amount of impurity. Depending on the type of impurity added we
have two types of semiconductors: N-type and P-type semiconductors. In 100 million parts of semiconductor one
part of impurity is added.
 27

N type Semiconductor

In this type of semiconductor majority carriers are electrons and minority carriers are holes. N – type
semiconductor is formed by adding pentavalent (five valence electrons) impurity in pure semiconductor crystal,
e.g. P. As, Sb.

Four of the five valence electron of pentavalent impurity forms covalent bond with Si atom and the remaining
electron is free to move anywhere within the crystal. Pentavalent impurity donates electron to Si that’s why N-
type impurity atoms are known as donor atoms. This enhances the conductivity of pure Si. Majority carriers are
electrons .
P type Semiconductors

In this type of semiconductor majority carriers are holes, and minority carriers are electrons. The p-type
semiconductor is formed by adding trivalent ( three valence electrons) impurity in a pure semiconductor crystal,
e.g. B, Al Ba.

Three of the four valence electron of tetravalent impurity forms covalent bonds with Si atoms. The phenomenon
creates a space which we refer to a hole. When the temperature rises an electron from another covalent bond
jumps to fill this space. Hence, a hole gets created behind. In this way conduction takes place. P-type impurity
accepts electrons and is called acceptor atom. Majority carriers are holes.
 28

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

A diode is defined as a two-terminal electronic component that only conducts current in one direction (so long as
it is operated within a specified voltage level). An ideal diode will have zero resistance in one direction, and
infinite resistance in the reverse direction.
Although in the real world, diodes can not achieve zero or infinite resistance. Instead, a diode will have negligible
resistance in one direction (to allow current flow), and a very high resistance in the reverse direction (to prevent
current flow). A diode is effectively like a valve for an electrical circuit.
Semiconductor diodes are the most common type of diode. These diodes begin conducting electricity only if a
certain threshold voltage is present in the forward direction (i.e. the “low resistance” direction). The diode is said
to be “forward biased” when conducting current in this direction. When connected within a circuit in the reverse
direction (i.e. the “high resistance” direction), the diode is said to be “reverse biased”.
A diode only blocks current in the reverse direction (i.e. when it is reverse biased) while the reverse voltage is
within a specified range. Above this range, the reverse barrier breaks. The voltage at which this breakdown occurs
is called the “reverse breakdown voltage”. When the voltage of the circuit is higher than the reverse breakdown
voltage, the diode is able to conduct electricity in the reverse direction (i.e. the “high resistance” direction). This
is why in practice we say diodes have a high resistance in the reverse direction – not an infinite resistance.

A PN junction is the simplest form of the semiconductor diode. In ideal conditions, this PN junction behaves as a
short circuit when it is forward biased, and as an open circuit when it is in the reverse biased. The name diode is
derived from “di–ode” which means a device that has two electrodes. Diodes are commonly used in many
electronics projects and are included in many of the best Arduino starter kits.

Diode Symbol

The symbol of a diode is shown below. The arrowhead points in the direction of conventional current flow in the
forward biased condition. That means the anode is connected to the p side and the cathode is connected to the n
side.
 29

We can create a simple PN junction diode by doping pentavalent or donor impurity in one portion and trivalent
or acceptor impurity in other portion of silicon or germanium crystal block. These dopings make a PN junction at
the middle part of the block. We can also form a PN junction by joining a p-type and n-type semiconductor
together with a special fabrication technique. The terminal connected to the p-type is the anode. The terminal
connected to the n-type side is the cathode.

Working Principle of Diode

A diode’s working principle depends on the interaction of n-type and p-type semiconductors. An n-type
semiconductor has plenty of free electrons and a very few numbers of holes. In other words, we can say that the
concentration of free electrons is high and that of holes is very low in an n-type semiconductor. Free electrons in
the n-type semiconductor are referred as majority charge carriers, and holes in the n-type semiconductor are
referred to as minority charge carriers.
A p-type semiconductor has a high concentration of holes and a low concentration of free electrons. Holes in the
p-type semiconductor are majority charge carriers, and free electrons in the p-type semiconductor are minority
charge carriers.

Unbiased Diode
Now let us see what happens when one n-type region and one p-type region come in contact. Here due to
concentration differences, majority carriers diffuse from one side to another. As the concentration of holes is high
in the p-type region and it is low in the n-type region, the holes start diffusing from the p-type region to the n-type
[Link] the concentration of free electrons is high in the n-type region and it is low in the p-type region and
due to this reason, free electrons start diffusing from the n-type region to the p-type region.

The free electrons diffusing into the p-type region from the n-type region would recombine with holes available
there and create uncovered negative ions in the p-type region. In the same way, the holes diffusing into the n-type
region from the p-type region would recombine with free electrons available there and create uncovered positive
ions in the n-type region.

In this way, there would a layer of negative ions in the p-type side and a layer of positive ions in the n-type region
appear along the junction line of these two types of semiconductors. The layers of uncovered positive ions and
uncovered negative ions form a region in the middle of the diode where no charge carrier exists since all the
charge carriers get recombined here in this region. Due to the lack of charge carriers, this region is called the
depletion region.
 30

After the formation of the depletion region, there is no more diffusion of charge carriers from one side to another
in the diode. This is due to the electric field appeared across the depletion region will prevent further migration of
charge carriers from one side to another.

The potential of the layer of uncovered positive ions in the n-type side would repeal the holes in the p-type side
and the potential of the layer of uncovered negative ions in the p-type side would repeal the free electrons in the
n-type side. That means a potential barrier is created across the junction to prevent further diffusion of charge
carriers.

Forward Biased Diode

Now let us see what happens if a positive terminal of a source is connected to the p-type side and the negative
terminal of the source is connected to the n-type side of the diode and if we increase the voltage of this source
slowly from zero.

In the beginning, there is no current flowing through the diode. This is because although there is an external
electrical field applied across the diode, the majority charge carriers still do not get sufficient influence of the
external field to cross the depletion region. As we told that the depletion region acts as a potential barrier against
the majority charge carriers.

This potential barrier is called forward potential barrier. The majority charge carriers start crossing the forward
potential barrier only when the value of externally applied voltage across the junction is more than the potential
of the forward barrier. For silicon diodes, the forward barrier potential is 0.7 volt and for germanium diodes, it is
0.3 volt.

When the externally applied forward voltage across the diode becomes more than the forward barrier potential,
the free majority charge carriers start crossing the barrier and contribute the forward diode current. In that
situation, the diode would behave as a short-circuited path and the forward current gets limited by only externally
connected resistors to the diode.

Reverse Biased Diode

Now let us see what happens if we connect the negative terminal of the voltage source to the p-type side and
positive terminal of the voltage source to the n-type side of the diode. At that condition, due to electrostatic
attraction of the negative potential of the source, the holes in the p-type region would be shifted more away from
the junction leaving more uncovered negative ions at the junction.

In the same way, the free electrons in the n-type region would be shifted more away from the junction towards
the positive terminal of the voltage source leaving more uncovered positive ions in the junction. As a result of this
 31

phenomenon, the depletion region becomes wider. This condition of a diode is called the reverse biased condition.
At that condition, no majority carriers cross the junction, and they instead move away from the junction. In this
way, a diode blocks the flow of current when it is reverse biased.

As we already told at the beginning of this article that there are always some free electrons in the p-type
semiconductor and some holes in the n-type semiconductor. These opposite charge carriers in a semiconductor
are called minority charge carriers. In the reverse biased condition, the holes find themselves in the n-type side
would easily cross the reverse-biased depletion region as the field across the depletion region does not present
rather it helps minority charge carriers to cross the depletion region.

As a result, there is a tiny current flowing through the diode from positive to the negative side. The amplitude of
this current is very small as the number of minority charge carriers in the diode is very small. This current is called
reverse saturation current.

If the reverse voltage across a diode gets increased beyond a safe value, due to higher electrostatic force and due
to higher kinetic energy of minority charge carriers colliding with atoms, a number of covalent bonds get broken
to contribute a huge number of free electron-hole pairs in the diode and the process is cumulative.

The huge number of such generated charge carriers would contribute a huge reverse current in the diode. If this
current is not limited by an external resistance connected to the diode circuit, the diode may permanently be
destroyed.

Operation of diode can be summarized in form of I-V diode characteristics graph.

For reverse bias diode,
Where, V = supply voltage
ID = diode current
IS = reverse saturation current

For forward bias,

Where, VT = volt’s equivalent of temperature = KT/Q = T/11600
Q = electronic charge =
K = Boltzmann’s constant =
N = 1, for Ge
= 2, for Si
 32

V-I CHARACTERSTICS OF DIODE:

As reverse bias voltage is further raised, depletion region width increases and a point comes when junction breaks
down. This results in large flow of current. Breakdown is the knee of diode characteristics curve. Junction
breakdown takes place due to two [Link] diode current equation is also known as SHOCKLEY’S
EQUATION.

Avalanche Breakdown (for V > 5V)

Under very high reverse bias voltage kinetic energy of minority carriers become so large that they knock out
electrons from covalent bonds, which in turn knock more electrons and this cycle continues until and unless
junction breakdowns. This is known as avalanche breakdown, a phenomenom that is cental to avalanche diodes.
Zener Effect (for V < 5V)

Under reverse bias voltage junction barrier tends to increase with increase in bias voltage. This results in very
high static electric field at the junction. This static electric field breaks covalent bond and set minority carriers
free which contributes to reverse current. Current increases abruptly and junction breaks down. This is known as
Zener breakdown, and is a phenomenom that is cental to Zener diodes
Static or DC Resistance

It is the resistance offered by the diode to the flow of DC through it when we apply a DC voltage to it.
Mathematically the static resistance is expressed as the ratio of DC voltage applied across the diode terminals to
the DC flowing through it i.e.

Dynamic or AC Resistance

It is the resistance offered by the diode to the flow of AC through it when we connect it in a circuit which has an
AC voltage source as an active circuit element. Mathematically the dynamic resistance is given as the ratio of
change in voltage applied across the diode to the resulting change in the current flowing through it. This is
shown by the slope-indicating red solid lines and is expressed as
 33

ZENER DIODE

Zener diode is basically like an ordinary PN junction diode but normally operated in reverse biased condition. But
ordinary PN junction diode connected in reverse biased condition is not used as Zener diode practically. A Zener
diode is a specially designed, highly doped PN junction diode.
 34

Working Principle of Zener Diode:

When a PN junction diode is reverse biased, the depletion layer becomes wider. If this reverse biased voltage
across the diode is increased continually, the depletion layer becomes more and more wider. At the same time,
there will be a constant reverse saturation current due to minority carriers.
After certain reverse voltage across the junction, the minority carriers get sufficient kinetic energy due to the
strong electric field. Free electrons with sufficient kinetic energy collide with stationary ions of the depletion layer
and knock out more free electrons. These newly created free electrons also get sufficient kinetic energy due to the
same electric field, and they create more free electrons by collision cumulatively. Due to this commutative
phenomenon, very soon, huge free electrons get created in the depletion layer, and the entire diode will become
conductive. This type of breakdown of the depletion layer is known as avalanche breakdown, but this breakdown
is not quite sharp. There is another type of breakdown in depletion layer which is sharper compared to avalanche
breakdown, and this is called Zener breakdown. When a PN junction is diode is highly doped, the concentration
of impurity atoms will be high in the crystal. This higher concentration of impurity atoms causes the higher
concentration of ions in the depletion layer hence for same applied reverse biased voltage, the width of the
depletion layer becomes thinner than that in a normally doped diode.
Due to this thinner depletion layer, voltage gradient or electric field strength across the depletion layer is quite
high. If the reverse voltage is continued to increase, after a certain applied voltage, the electrons from the covalent
bonds within the depletion region come out and make the depletion region conductive. This breakdown is called
Zener breakdown. The voltage at which this breakdown occurs is called Zener voltage. If the applied reverse
voltage across the diode is more than Zener voltage, the diode provides a conductive path to the current through
it hence, there is no chance of further avalanche breakdown in it. Theoretically, Zener breakdown occurs at a
lower voltage level then avalanche breakdown in a diode, especially doped for Zener breakdown. The Zener
breakdown is much sharper than avalanche breakdown. The Zener voltage of the diode gets adjusted during
manufacturing with the help of required and proper doping. When a zener diode is connected across a voltage
source, and the source voltage is more than Zener voltage, the voltage across a Zener diode remain fixed
irrespective of the source voltage. Although at that condition current through the diode can be of any value
depending on the load connected with the diode. That is why we use a Zener diode mainly for controlling voltage
in different circuits.
The circuit symbol of a Zener diode is also shown below.

Characteristics of a Zener Diode

Now, discussing about the diode circuits we should look through the graphical representation of the operation of
the zener diode. Normally, it is called the V-I characteristics of a Zener diode.
 35

The above diagram shows the V-I characteristics of a zener diode. When the diode is connected in forward bias,
this diode acts as a normal diode but when the reverse bias voltage is greater than zener voltage, a sharp breakdown
takes place. In the V-I characteristics above Vz is the zener voltage. It is also the knee voltage because at this point
the current increases very rapidly.
Operation of Zener Diode Voltage Regulator
A rectifier with an appropriate filter serves as a good source of d.c. output. However, the major disadvantage of
such a power supply is that the output voltage changes with the variations in the input voltage or load. Thus, if
the input voltage increases, the d.c. output voltage of the rectifier also increases. Similarly, if the load current
increases, the output voltage falls due to the voltage drop in the rectifying element, filter chokes, transformer
winding etc. In many electronic applications, it is desired that the output voltage should remain constant regardless
of the variations in the input voltage or load. In order to ensure this, a voltage stabilising device, called voltage
stabiliser is used. Several stabilising circuits have been designed but only zener diode as a voltage stabiliser.
A zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator to provide a constant voltage from a source whose voltage may
vary over sufficient range. The circuit arrangement is shown in Fig (i). The zener diode of zener voltage Vz is
reverse connected across the load RL across which constant output is desired. The series resistance R absorbs the
output voltage fluctuations so as to maintain constant voltage across the load. It may be noted that the zener will
maintain a constant voltage Vz (= E0) across the load so long as the input voltage does not fall below Vz

fig (i)

Fig- (ii)
 36

When the circuit is properly designed, the load voltage E0 remains essentially constant (equal to Vz) even though
the input voltage Ei and load resistance RL may vary over a wide range.
(i) Suppose the input voltage increases. Since the zener is in the breakdown region, the zener diode is equivalent
to a battery VZ as shown in Fig (ii). It is clear that output voltage remains constant at VZ (= E0). The excess
voltage is dropped across the series resistance R. This will cause an increase in the value of total current I. The
zener will conduct the increase of current in I while the load current remains constant. Hence, output voltage E0
remains constant irrespective of the changes in the input voltage Ei.
(ii) Now suppose that input voltage is constant but the load resistance RL decreases. This will cause an increase
in load current. The extra current cannot come from the source because drop in R (and hence source current I) will
not change as the zener is within its regulating range. The additional load current will come from a decrease in
zener current IZ. Consequently, the output voltage stays at constant value.
Voltage drop across R = Ei − E0
Current through R, I = IZ + IL
Applying Ohm’s law, we have

Light Emitting Diode (LED):

A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a special type of PN junction diode. The light emitting diode is specially doped
and made of a special type of semiconductor. This diode can emit light when it is in the forward biased state.
Aluminum indium gallium phosphide (AlInGaP) and indium gallium nitride (InGaN) are two of the most
commonly used semiconductors for LED technologies.
Older LED technologies used gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP), gallium phosphide (GaP), and aluminum
gallium arsenide (AlGaAs). LEDs generate visible radiation by electroluminescence phenomenon when a low-
voltage direct current is applied to a suitably doped crystal containing a p-n junction, as shown in the diagram.

The doping is typically carried out with elements from column III and V of the periodic table. When a forward
biased current, IF, energizes the p-n junction, it emits light at a wavelength defined by the active region energy
gap, Eg.
When the forward biased current IF is applied through the p-n junction of the diode, minority carrier electrons are
injected into the p-region and corresponding minority carrier electrons are injected into the n-region. Photon
emission occurs due to electron-hole recombination in the p-region.

Color of an LED
The color of an LED device is expressed in terms of the dominant wavelength emitted, λd (in nm). AlInGaP LEDs
produce the colors red (626 to 630 nm), red-orange (615 to 621 nm), orange (605 nm), and amber (590 to 592
nm). InGaN LEDs produce the colors green (525 nm), blue green (498 to 505 nm), and blue (470 nm). The color
and forward voltage of AlInGaP LEDs depend on the temperature of the LED p-n junction.
"Liquid Crystal Display"- LCD:

Stands for "Liquid Crystal Display." LCD is a flat panel display technology commonly used in TVs and
computer monitors. It is also used in screens for mobile devices, such as laptops, tablets, and smartphones.
 37

LCD displays don't just look different than bulky CRT monitors, the way they operate is significantly different as
well. Instead of firing electrons at a glass screen, an LCD has backlight that provides light to
individual pixels arranged in a rectangular grid. Each pixel has a red, green, and blue RGB sub-pixel that can be
turned on or off. When all of a pixel's sub-pixels are turned off, it appears black. When all the sub-pixels are
turned on 100%, it appears white. By adjusting the individual levels of red, green, and blue light, millions of color
combinations are possible.

How an LCD works

The backlight in liquid crystal display provides an even light source behind the screen. This light is polarized,
meaning only half of the light shines through to the liquid crystal layer. The liquid crystals are made up of a part
solid, part liquid substance that can be "twisted" by applying electrical voltage to them. They block the polarized
light when they are off, but reflect red, green, or blue light when activated.

Each LCD screen contains a matrix of pixels that display the image on the screen. Early LCDs had passive-
matrix screens, which controlled individual pixels by sending a charge to their row and column. Since a limited
number of electrical charges could be sent each second, passive-matrix screens were known for appearing blurry
when images moved quickly on the screen. Modern LCDs typically use active-matrix technology, which contain
thin film transistors, or TFTs. These transistors include capacitors that enable individual pixels to "actively" retain
their charge. Therefore, active-matrix LCDs are more efficient and appear more responsive than passive-matrix
displays.
NOTE: An LCD's backlight may either be a traditional bulb or LED light. An "LED display" is simply an LCD
screen with an LED backlight. This is different than an OLED display, which lights up individual LEDs for each
pixel. While the liquid crystals block most of an LCD's backlight when they are off, some of the light may still
shine through (which might be noticeable in a dark room). Therefore OLEDs typically have darker black levels
than LCDs.
RECTIFIER
DC Power Supply

There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage AC mains electricity to a
suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other devices. A power supply can by broken down
into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular function.
For example a 5V regulated supply:

 Transformer - steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.

 Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
 Smoothing - smooths the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
 Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.
 38

Transformer + Rectifier

The varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard motors. It is not suitable for electronic
circuits unless they include a smoothing capacitor.
Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator

The regulated DC output is very smooth with no ripple. It is suitable for all electronic circuits.

RECTIFIER

In a large number of electronic circuits, we require DC voltage for operation. We can easily convert the AC voltage
or AC current into DC voltage or DC current by using a device called P-N junction diode.

One of the most important applications of a P-N junction diode is the rectification of Alternating Current
(AC) into Direct Current (DC). A P-N junction diode allows electric current in only forward bias condition and
blocks electric current in reverse bias condition. In simple words, a diode allows electric current in one direction.
This unique property of the diode allows it to acts like a rectifier.
 39

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

A half wave rectifier is defined as a type of rectifier that only allows one half-cycle of an AC voltage waveform
to pass, blocking the other half-cycle. Half-wave rectifiers are used to convert AC voltage to DC voltage, and only
require a single diode to construct.
A rectifier is a device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). It is done by using a diode or
a group of diodes. Half wave rectifiers use one diode, while a full wave rectifier uses multiple diodes.
The working of a half wave rectifier takes advantage of the fact that diodes only allow current to flow in one
direction.

Half Wave Rectifier Theory

A half wave rectifier is the simplest form of rectifier available. The diagram below illustrates the basic principle
of a half-wave rectifier. When a standard AC waveform is passed through a half-wave rectifier, only half of the
AC waveform remains. Half-wave rectifiers only allow one half-cycle (positive or negative half-cycle) of the AC
voltage through and will block the other half-cycle on the DC side, as seen below.

Only one diode is required to construct a half-wave rectifier. In essence, this is all that the half-wave rectifier is
[Link] DC systems are designed to have current flowing in a single direction, putting an AC waveform with
positive and negative cycles through a DC device can have destructive (and dangerous) consequences. So we use
half-wave rectifiers to convert the AC input power into DC output power.

But the diode is only part of it – a complete half-wave rectifier circuit consists of 3 main parts:

1. A transformer
2. A resistive load
3. A diode
A half wave rectifier circuit diagram looks like this: