MATHS MANIA

COMPUTER
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Basics of Computer
Definition
A computer is an electronic device that can store, retrieve, and process data to produce meaningful
information.

Key Features of a Computer

Feature Explanation
Speed Performs millions of instructions per second.
Accuracy Produces highly accurate results if input and instructions are correct.
Automation Can execute tasks automatically once programmed.
Storage Stores vast amounts of data permanently (Hard Disk, SSD) or temporarily
(RAM).
Versatility Can perform multiple tasks (e.g., calculation, gaming, internet browsing).
Diligence Never tires or loses concentration, can work continuously.

CPU Speed Measurement

• CPU (Central Processing Unit) = Brain of the computer.
• Speed is measured in clock cycles.

Unit Definition
Hz (Hertz) 1 cycle per second.
kHz (Kilohertz) 1,000 cycles per second.
MHz (Megahertz) 1 million cycles per second.
GHz (Gigahertz) 1 billion cycles per second.

Example: A CPU with 3.0 GHz speed executes 3 billion cycles per second.

Additional Important Points

• Full Form of Computer : Commonly Operated Machine Particularly Used for Technical,
Educational & Research.
• Basic Operations of Computer:
1. Input → Data entered (via keyboard, mouse).
2. Processing → Data processed by CPU.
3. Output → Information displayed (monitor, printer).
4. Storage → Data saved for future use.
• First General-Purpose Electronic Computer → ENIAC (1946).
• Binary System: Computers work on 0s and 1s (bits).
• Computer Literacy Day → Celebrated on 2nd December.
History of Computer
The history of computers can be divided into pre-computer era (mechanical devices) and the modern
electronic computer era (after 1940).

Pre-Computer Era (Before 1940)

• Abacus (3000 BC) → First known calculating device.
• 1642 – Pascal’s Calculator → Invented by Blaise Pascal to perform addition and subtraction.
• 1822 – Difference Engine → Designed by Charles Babbage, considered the first automatic
calculating machine.
• 1837 – Analytical Engine → Proposed by Charles Babbage, the true concept of a programmable
computer.
• Ada Lovelace → Recognized as the first computer programmer (wrote algorithm for Analytical
Engine).
• Alan Turing → Known as the Father of Modern Computer Science; developed the concept of
algorithms and Turing Machine.

Modern Computer Era (After 1940)

Year Invention / Developer Importance
1946 ENIAC (Electronic Numerical First electronic general-purpose computer.
Integrator and Computer)
1971 Intel 4004 Microprocessor First commercial microprocessor, marked
the beginning of microcomputer
revolution.
1981 IBM PC Launched Popularized personal computers globally.
1986 (16th Siddharth (India’s first First computer made in India.
August) computer)

Important Personalities
• Charles Babbage → Father of Computer.
• Alan Turing → Father of Modern Computer Science.
• Ada Lovelace → First Computer Programmer.
Generations of Computer
Generation Hardware Components Key Characteristics Examples
First Vacuum Tubes, Magnetic - Very large size, costly, consumed ENIAC, EDVAC,
Generation Drums high power. UNIVAC-1, IBM-
(1940–1956) - Very slow, limited storage. 701
- Used Machine Language (0s &
1s) only.
Second Transistors replaced vacuum - Smaller, faster, more reliable. IBM 1401, IBM
Generation tubes - Consumed less power, produced 7094, CDC 1604
(1956–1963) less heat.
- Cheaper and easier to maintain.
- Used Assembly Language and
early High-Level Languages
(COBOL, FORTRAN).
Third Integrated Circuits (ICs) - Hundreds of transistors on a IBM 360 Series,
Generation single chip. PDP-8, Honeywell
(1964–1971) - More reliable, faster, smaller, 6000
and cheaper.
- Supported Operating Systems
and multiprogramming.
- Used High-Level Languages (C,
BASIC, Pascal).
Fourth Microprocessors (VLSI – - Thousands of ICs integrated into IBM PC, Apple
Generation Very Large Scale one chip. Macintosh, Intel
(1971– Integration) - Very small in size, portable, 4004, Pentium
Present) affordable. series
- Graphical User Interfaces (GUI),
Networking, Internet.
- Programming in C, C++, Java,
.NET.
Fifth ULSI (Ultra Large Scale - Focus on Artificial Intelligence IBM Watson,
Generation Integration), AI Chips, (AI), Machine Learning (ML), Google DeepMind,
(Present & Quantum Computing Robotics, Expert Systems. Quantum
Beyond) Components - Natural Language Processing Computers
(NLP), Parallel Processing.
- Extremely powerful, compact,
energy efficient.
- Capable of self-learning and
decision making.

Types of Computers
Computers can be classified in different ways: based on type, based on purpose, and based on size.

1. Based on Type
Type Description Examples
Analog Work with continuous data (measure Thermometer-based systems,
Computers temperature, speed, voltage). Analog speedometers
Digital Work on discrete/binary data (0 & 1). PC, Laptop, Smartphones
Computers Most commonly used today.
Hybrid Combination of Analog + Digital (used Heart-rate monitoring systems,
Computers for both measuring & calculating). Petrol pumps

2. Based on Purpose
Purpose Description Examples
General Purpose Designed for multiple tasks (word Desktop PCs, Laptops
Computers processing, browsing, gaming).

Special Purpose Built for a specific task, more ATMs, Traffic control systems,
Computers efficient in that area. Weather forecasting machines

3. Based on Size and Performance

Type Description Examples
Supercomputers Most powerful, handle trillions of calculations PARAM (India),
per second, used for scientific research, weather Summit (USA)
forecasting, AI.
Mainframe Large systems used by big organizations for IBM zSeries,
Computers bulk data processing and transaction handling. UNIVAC
Minicomputers Mid-sized, used in small businesses/industries PDP-11, VAX
for controlling machines and databases.
Microcomputers Smallest, used by individuals; include desktops, IBM PC, Apple
laptops, tablets. Mac, Smartphones
Workstations High-performance personal computers for Sun Microsystems,
engineering, designing, and graphics work. Dell Precision

Most Important Supercomputers

Supercomputer Country Key Fact
PARAM 8000 (1991) India India’s first supercomputer, developed by C-DAC.
PARAM Siddhi-AI India One of the world’s fastest AI supercomputers, ranked in
(2020) TOP500.
Frontier (2022) USA Currently world’s fastest (exascale computing, >1
exaFLOP).
Summit (2018) USA Former world’s fastest; used for AI & climate research.
Fugaku (2020) Japan #1 before Frontier; designed by RIKEN & Fujitsu.
Tianhe-2 (2013) China World’s fastest (2013–2015); developed by China’s
National University of Defense Tech.
Revision Points
• Analog → Continuous data, Digital → Discrete data, Hybrid → Both.
• General Purpose → Multipurpose PCs, Special Purpose → ATMs, Traffic control.
• Supercomputer > Mainframe > Mini > Micro (in size & power).
• India’s First Supercomputer → PARAM 8000 (1991).
• Current Fastest Supercomputer → Frontier (USA, 2022)

Organisation of Computer (Basic Units of

Computer)
A computer system works by coordinating different basic functional units, each having a specific role.
These units together form the Organisation of Computer.

1. Input Unit
• Accepts data and instructions from the user.
• Converts input into machine-readable form (binary).
• Examples: Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Microphone.

2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU is the brain of the computer. It has three main components:

1. Control Unit (CU)

o Directs the flow of data and instructions.
o Coordinates between input, memory, and output units.
2. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
o Performs arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, etc.).
o Handles logical operations (comparisons: <, >, =).
3. Registers
o High-speed storage inside CPU for temporary data.

3. Memory Unit
 • Stores data, instructions, and results.
• Two main categories:
o Primary Memory → RAM, ROM (fast, temporary, small).
o Secondary Memory → Hard Disk, SSD (large, permanent, slower).

4. Output Unit
• Converts machine-processed results into human-readable form.
• Examples: Monitor, Printer, Speaker.

5. Storage Unit
• Works as long-term data storage.
• Includes Magnetic Disks (HDD), Solid-State Drives (SSD), Optical Discs (CD/DVD), Pen drives.

Basic Units of Computer(Revision Table)

Unit Function Examples
Input Unit Takes data/instructions from user Keyboard, Mouse
CPU (ALU + CU + Registers) Processes data, controls operations Intel/AMD processors
Memory Unit Stores data temporarily/permanently RAM, ROM, Hard Disk
Output Unit Shows results to user Monitor, Printer
Storage Unit Long-term storage of data HDD, SSD, CD/DVD

Output Devices of Computer

Output devices are hardware components that allow a computer to communicate the results of processing to
the user in a human-readable form (text, graphics, audio, or video).

1. Visual Output Devices

• Monitor (VDU – Visual Display Unit)
o Most common output device.
o Types: CRT (Cathode Ray Tube), LCD(Liquid Crystal Display), LED(Light Emitting
Diode), OLED(Organic LED).
o Displays text, images, and videos.
• Projector
o Projects computer output on large screens.
o Used in classrooms, seminars, theaters.
• Plotter
o Produces large-size drawings, maps, blueprints.
o Used in engineering, architecture, and design.

2. Print Output Devices

Printer (gives hard copy output).

Impact Printers
(Strike ink ribbon against paper → noisy, cheaper, can print multiple copies with carbon paper)
 Printer Key Points
Dot Matrix Printer Prints characters as patterns of dots; slow, noisy; cheap
(DMP) maintenance.
Line Printer Prints one line at a time; used for bulk printing.
Daisy Wheel Printer Prints like a typewriter; produces letter-quality print; very slow.

Non-Impact Printers
(Do not strike paper → quieter, faster, better quality)

Printer Key Points

Inkjet Printer Sprays liquid ink on paper; high-quality, slower, low volume; costly per
page.
Laser Printer Uses laser beam & toner; very fast, high-quality, used in offices.
Thermal Uses heat-sensitive paper; silent, used in billing counters, ATMs.
Printer

3. Audio Output Devices

• Speakers → Produce sound output (music, alerts, voice).
• Headphones/Earphones → Personal audio output.

Input Devices of Computer

Input devices allow users to feed data and instructions into the computer system. They are essential for
communication between the user and the machine.

1⃣ Standard Input Devices

Device Key Points
Keyboard Most common input device; based on QWERTY layout; contains alphabets, numbers, and
function keys.
Mouse Pointing device; performs click, drag, drop, scroll functions. Types: Mechanical, Optical,
Wireless.
Touchscreen Combines input + output; user interacts by touching directly. Used in smartphones,
ATMs.

2⃣ Pointing Devices
Device Key Points
Trackball Like an upside-down mouse; used in laptops, CAD applications.
Joystick Used for gaming, simulations, and controlling machines.
Light Pen Pen-like device for drawing/selecting on screen.
Stylus Used with touchscreens and tablets for handwriting/drawing input.
3⃣ Scanning & Recognition Devices
Device Key Points
Scanner Converts physical documents/images into digital form.
OCR (Optical Character Recognition) Converts printed text into editable digital text.
OMR (Optical Mark Recognition) Reads marked answers (used in OMR sheets/exams).
MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Used in banks to read cheques.
Recognition)
Barcode Reader Reads data stored in barcodes; used in retail &
inventory.
QR Code Scanner Reads Quick Response codes, faster & more secure.

4⃣ Biometric Devices
Device Key Points
Fingerprint Scanner Identifies based on fingerprint patterns.
Iris Scanner Uses unique patterns of the eye for authentication.
Facial Recognition Identifies person by facial features.
Voice Recognition Converts speech to text, also used for authentication.

5⃣ Other Specialized Input Devices

Device Key Points
Digital Camera/Webcam Captures images and videos directly to computer.
Microphone Captures sound/voice for storage or processing.
Graphics Tablet/Digitizer Used by designers/artists for digital drawing.
Gamepad/Controller Used for gaming control.
Sensors Input from environment (temperature, motion, GPS).

Computer Memory
Computer memory is the storage space in a computer where data and instructions are stored for processing.
It is mainly classified into Primary Memory, Secondary Memory, and Cache Memory.

Main Classification of Memory

Memory Type Description Examples
Primary Directly accessible by CPU; temporary or RAM, ROM
Memory permanent.

Secondary Permanent storage, slower than primary; not Hard Disk, SSD,
Memory directly accessed by CPU. CD/DVD, Pen Drive
Cache Memory High-speed memory between CPU & RAM; L1, L2, L3 Cache
stores frequently used instructions.

Primary Memory
Key Features

• Directly accessible by CPU.

• Fastest access after Cache & Registers.
• Limited capacity compared to secondary memory.
• Temporary or permanent depending on type.
• Divided mainly into RAM (volatile) and ROM (non-volatile).

Type Details Examples

RAM (Random Access Volatile, temporary storage; data lost when DRAM, SRAM
Memory) power is off.
ROM (Read Only Non-volatile, permanent storage; data not lost PROM, EPROM,
Memory) after power off. EEPROM

RAM vs ROM
Feature RAM ROM
Full Form Random Access Memory Read Only Memory
Nature Volatile (data lost on power off) Non-volatile (data retained)
Read/Write Read & Write Mostly Read-only
Speed Very fast Slower than RAM
Usage Temporary storage of data & instructions Permanent storage of firmware (BIOS,
during processing system software)
Examples DRAM, SRAM PROM, EPROM, EEPROM
Types of RAM
Type Full Form Key Features Use
SRAM Static RAM Faster, costlier, consumes more power; Cache Memory
stores data using flip-flops.
DRAM Dynamic RAM Slower, cheaper, needs refreshing; stores Main System
data using capacitors. Memory
SDRAM Synchronous DRAM Synchronized with CPU clock; faster than Modern PCs
normal DRAM.
DDR Double Data Rate Transfers data twice per clock cycle; variants Laptops, Desktops,
SDRAM SDRAM DDR1 → DDR5. Servers

Types of ROM
Type Full Form Key Features Use
PROM Programmable ROM Can be programmed once only; Embedded systems
permanent data storage.
EPROM Erasable Programmable Can be erased using UV light and Older firmware
ROM reprogrammed. updates
EEPROM Electrically Erasable Can be erased & reprogrammed BIOS chips
Programmable ROM electrically; slower.
Flash Advanced EEPROM Faster, allows block-wise erasing; Pen drives, SSDs,
Memory widely used today. Memory cards

Secondary Memory (Storage Devices)

Key Features

• Non-volatile → Data is not lost when power is off.

• Larger capacity than primary memory.
• Slower compared to RAM and Cache.
• Cost per bit is cheaper than primary memory.
• Stores programs, OS, applications, and user data.

Types of Secondary Memory

Category Device Key Points
Magnetic Storage Hard Disk Drive (HDD) Most common secondary storage; uses magnetic
platters.
Floppy Disk (obsolete) Used in early computers; very low capacity.
Optical Storage CD (700 MB) Read by laser; used for music & software.
DVD (4.7 GB – 17 GB) Higher storage than CD; movies, games.
Blu-Ray Disc (25–128 GB) High-definition video storage.
Solid-State SSD (Solid State Drive) Faster, reliable, no moving parts; uses flash
Storage memory.
USB Flash Drive Portable, rewritable, widely used.
Memory Card (SD, Used in mobiles, cameras.
MicroSD)
Cloud Storage Google Drive, Dropbox Online storage, accessible via internet.
Units of Memory
Memory in computers is measured in bits and bytes.

Basic Units
Unit Symbol Relation
Bit b Smallest unit of data (0 or 1)
Nibble – 4 bits
Byte B 8 bits = 1 character

Higher Units
Unit Symbol Conversion
Kilobyte (KB) KB 1 KB = 1024 Bytes
Megabyte (MB) MB 1 MB = 1024 KB
Gigabyte (GB) GB 1 GB = 1024 MB
Terabyte (TB) TB 1 TB = 1024 GB
Petabyte (PB) PB 1 PB = 1024 TB
Exabyte (EB) EB 1 EB = 1024 PB
Zettabyte (ZB) ZB 1 ZB = 1024 EB
Yottabyte (YB) YB 1 YB = 1024 ZB

Key Points
• Bit (Binary Digit) → Smallest unit, value either 0 or 1.
• 1 Byte = 8 Bits = 1 Character (A, B, C, etc.).
• Nibble = 4 Bits = Half a Byte.

Memory Hierarchy Diagram

Bit → Nibble → Byte → KB → MB → GB → TB → PB → EB → ZB → YB

Easy trick to remember Memory Units Hierarchy: Brilliant New Boys Know Memory
Grows Too Powerful Every Zone Yes!

Computer Languages
A computer language is a system of communication used to write programs that tell a computer what to do.
It consists of syntax (rules) and semantics (meaning) that enable humans to interact with computers..

Category Language Level Description Examples Key Points (Exam-

Relevant)
Low-Level Machine Binary code (0s and 1s); – Fastest execution, but
Language Language directly understood by very difficult for
CPU. humans to
understand.
Assembly Uses symbolic codes MOV, ADD, Easier than machine
Language (mnemonics) instead of SUB language; requires
binary. Assembler to convert
to machine code.
High-Level Procedural / Uses English-like syntax; C, Machine independent,
Language Imperative requires FORTRAN, easy to learn, widely
(HLL) compiler/interpreter. COBOL, used.
BASIC
Object-Oriented Based on objects, classes, C++, Java, Supports modularity,
Programming inheritance. Python reusability.
(OOP)
Non-Procedural / User specifies what to do, SQL, Prolog, Used in databases,
Declarative not how. LISP AI.
4GL – Very high-level; closer to SQL, Increases
(Fourth-Gen human language; MATLAB productivity, used in
Language) minimizes coding effort. DBMS and
applications.
5GL (Fifth- – Used for Artificial Prolog, Focuses on logic &
Gen Intelligence (AI) and Mercury constraints; user
Language) problem solving. defines conditions.

Language Inventor(s) Year Key Use/Fact

Machine – 1940s Written in binary (0s & 1s);
Language (1GL) hardware dependent.
Assembly Kathleen Booth (concept) 1947 Uses mnemonics (ADD, SUB);
Language (2GL) requires assembler.
FORTRAN John Backus (IBM) 1957 First high-level language; used
in scientific computing.
COBOL Grace Hopper & 1959 Business applications; still used
CODASYL Committee in banking.
LISP John McCarthy 1958 One of the oldest AI
programming languages.
BASIC John Kemeny & Thomas 1964 Beginner-friendly language;
Kurtz widely taught in schools.
C Dennis Ritchie (Bell Labs) 1972 General-purpose, system
software; base for C++.
C++ Bjarne Stroustrup 1983 Object-oriented extension of C.

SQL Donald Chamberlin & 1974 Database query language.

Raymond Boyce (IBM)
Java James Gosling (Sun 1995 Platform-independent; “Write
Microsystems) once, run anywhere.”
Python Guido van Rossum 1991 Popular for AI, ML, web
development; easy syntax.
JavaScript Brendan Eich (Netscape) 1995 Web development (front-end
scripting).
PHP Rasmus Lerdorf 1995 Web server-side programming.
Prolog Alain Colmerauer & Robert 1972 Logic programming, used in AI.
Kowalski
Software
Software is a set of programs, procedures, and related data that tells a computer how to perform specific
tasks. Unlike hardware, it is intangible but essential for computer functioning.

Classification of Software
1. System Software

Controls and manages hardware, provides platform for application software.

Type Description Examples

Operating System Manages hardware & software, provides user Windows, Linux, macOS,
(OS) interface. Android
Utility Programs Perform maintenance tasks like virus scan, backup, Antivirus, WinRAR, Disk
file management. Cleanup
Device Drivers Enable communication between OS and hardware. Printer driver, Graphics
driver

2. Application Software

Designed to perform specific tasks for the user.

Type Description Examples

General Purpose For common tasks. MS Office, VLC Player, Web Browsers
Software
Special Purpose For a particular domain/task. Tally (Accounting), AutoCAD
Software (Designing)
Customized Software Tailor-made for specific Banking software, Railway reservation
organizations. system

3. Programming Software (Development Tools)

Used to write, test, and debug programs.

• Compiler – Converts entire HLL program into machine code (C Compiler).

• Interpreter – Converts line by line (Python Interpreter).
• Assembler – Converts assembly language to machine code.
• IDE (Integrated Development Environment) – Combines editor, compiler, debugger (Eclipse,
Visual Studio).

Categories by Usage
Category Description Examples
Freeware Free to use, but cannot modify. Adobe Acrobat Reader, Skype
Shareware Free trial, then paid. WinZip, Antivirus trials
Open Source Source code available, modifiable. Linux, Apache, Python
Proprietary Owned by companies, paid license. Windows, MS Office
Firmware Permanent software stored in ROM, controls hardware. BIOS
Operating System (OS)
An Operating System (OS) is a system software that acts as an interface between the user and computer
hardware. It manages resources, controls hardware, and provides services to applications.

Functions of Operating System

1. Process Management → Schedules and manages execution of programs.
2. Memory Management → Allocates and deallocates memory for processes.
3. File Management → Handles storage, retrieval, and organization of data.
4. Device Management → Controls input/output devices using drivers.
5. Security & Access Control → Protects data and resources.
6. User Interface → Provides CLI (Command Line Interface) or GUI (Graphical User Interface).
7. Networking → Supports communication between systems.

Types of Operating Systems

Type Description Examples
Batch OS Executes jobs in batches without user interaction. Early IBM systems
Multiprogramming Runs multiple programs by CPU time-sharing. UNIX
OS
Multitasking OS Runs multiple tasks simultaneously for users. Windows, macOS
Time-Sharing OS Each user gets CPU time slice; supports multiple users. Mainframes,
UNIX
Distributed OS Manages group of computers as one system. Amoeba, LOCUS
Real-Time OS (RTOS) Provides immediate response; used in mission-critical VxWorks, QNX
apps.
Mobile OS Designed for smartphones/tablets. Android, iOS

Operating System Developer / Company Initial Release Year

UNIX AT&T Bell Labs 1969
MS-DOS Microsoft 1981
Windows 1.0 Microsoft 1985
Windows 95 Microsoft 1995
Windows XP Microsoft 2001
Windows 7 Microsoft 2009
Windows 10 Microsoft 2015
macOS (originally Mac OS) Apple 1984
Linux (Kernel) Linus Torvalds 1991
Android Google (based on Linux) 2008
iOS Apple 2007
Chrome OS Google 2009
Windows Key Shortcuts
Navigation & Window Management
Shortcut Function
Alt + Tab Switch between open applications
Alt + F4 Close current window/application
Win + D Show Desktop
Win + E Open File Explorer
Win + R Open Run dialog box
Win + L Lock the computer
Win + M Minimize all windows
Win + Shift + M Restore minimized windows
Win + Tab Task View (shows all open windows)

Most Important Computer Abbreviations

Abbreviation Full Form Key Point
BIOS Basic Input Output System Firmware in ROM; loads OS.
HTTP HyperText Transfer Protocol Protocol for web data transfer.
HTTPS HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure Secure version of HTTP with SSL.

URL Uniform Resource Locator Web address.

IP Internet Protocol Identifies devices on a network.
TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol / Basic internet communication
Internet Protocol protocol.
ISP Internet Service Provider Provides internet access.
LAN Local Area Network Small geographical network (office,
home).
WAN Wide Area Network Large geographical network
(internet).
VPN Virtual Private Network Secure, encrypted connection.
DNS Domain Name System Converts domain names to IP
addresses.
HTML HyperText Markup Language Standard web page language.
XML Extensible Markup Language Data representation & transfer.
SQL Structured Query Language Database management.
DBMS Database Management System Software for managing databases.
RDBMS Relational DBMS Database using relational model
(MySQL, Oracle).
OS Operating System System software; manages
hardware/software.
GUI Graphical User Interface User-friendly interface.
CLI Command Line Interface Text-based interface.
USB Universal Serial Bus Standard port for devices.
DVD Digital Versatile Disc Optical storage device.
SSD Solid State Drive Flash memory storage (faster than
HDD).
 HDD Hard Disk Drive Magnetic disk storage.
VPN Virtual Private Network Secure communication tunnel.
AI Artificial Intelligence Machines simulating human
intelligence.
ML Machine Learning AI branch; systems learn
automatically.
IPV4 Internet Protocol Version 4 32-bit addressing scheme.
IPV6 Internet Protocol Version 6 128-bit addressing scheme.
URL Uniform Resource Locator Address of a web page.
WWW World Wide Web Collection of linked hypertext
documents.
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol Protocol for sending emails.
POP3 Post Office Protocol v3 Email receiving protocol.
IMAP Internet Message Access Protocol Modern email receiving protocol.
VPN Virtual Private Network Secure tunneling over public internet.

ASCII American Standard Code for Character encoding standard.

Information Interchange
Unicode Universal Code Supports all world characters.
CAD Computer-Aided Design Designing with computer tools.
CAM Computer-Aided Manufacturing Manufacturing automation.
DNS Domain Name System Converts website names into IP
addresses.
ISP Internet Service Provider Provides internet services.
VPN Virtual Private Network Secure browsing over the internet.

Internet
The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers that communicate using standardized
protocols to share information, resources, and services.

Basics of Internet
• A network of networks, accessible worldwide.
• Based on the client-server model.
• Provides services like World Wide Web (WWW), Email, Online Banking, Social Media, Cloud
Storage.

History of Internet
Year Event
1969 ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network) started in the USA –
considered the beginning of the Internet.
1971 First Email sent by Ray Tomlinson.
1983 TCP/IP adopted as standard protocol.
1989 WWW (World Wide Web) invented by Tim Berners-Lee.
1995 Internet commercialized; public access expanded.
2004 Rise of Web 2.0 (interactive web – social media, blogs).
onwards
Present Web 3.0 & 5G era – AI, IoT, Blockchain integrated.
Domain Name
• A Domain Name is the human-readable address of a website.
• Structured as: www.example.com
o www → Subdomain
o example → Domain name
o .com → Top-Level Domain (TLD)

Types of Domains

Type Example Use

.com google.com Commercial websites
.org wikipedia.org Non-profit organizations
.gov india.gov.in Government websites
.edu mit.edu Educational institutions
.net sourceforge.net Networking/technology sites
Country Code TLDs .in (India), .us (USA), .uk (UK) Country-specific

URL (Uniform Resource Locator)

A URL is the complete address used to access a resource on the internet.

Structure:
https://www.example.com/page1

• https:// → Protocol
• www.example.com → Domain name
• /page1 → Specific path/page

Internet Protocols
Protocol Port Use
HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) 80 Transfers web pages (not secure)
HTTPS (Secure HTTP) 443 Secure web browsing (SSL/TLS encryption)
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) 20/21 Transfers files between computers
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) 25 Sending emails
POP3 (Post Office Protocol v3) 110 Receiving emails (downloads & removes from
server)
IMAP (Internet Message Access 143 Receiving & managing emails (keeps on server)
Protocol)
DNS (Domain Name System) 53 Converts domain name ↔ IP address
SSH (Secure Shell) 22 Secure remote login
Telnet 23 Remote login (not secure)

OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection)

The OSI model is a 7-layer framework that standardizes how data is transmitted over a network.

Layer (Top → Bottom) Function Examples

7. Application User interaction, services HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS
6. Presentation Data translation, encryption, compression SSL, JPEG, MPEG
 5. Session Establish, manage, terminate sessions NetBIOS, RPC
4. Transport Reliable delivery, error checking TCP, UDP
3. Network Logical addressing, routing IP, ICMP, ARP
2. Data Link Error detection, MAC addressing Ethernet, PPP, Switch
1. Physical Transmission of raw bits (hardware) Cables, Hubs, NICs

Web Browser
A Web Browser is an application software that allows users to access and view websites.

Functions:

• Retrieves web pages via HTTP/HTTPS.

• Renders HTML, CSS, JavaScript.
• Provides navigation (back, forward, bookmarks).
• Supports plug-ins & security.

Examples:

• Google Chrome (2008, Google)

• Mozilla Firefox (2002, Mozilla Foundation)
• Microsoft Edge (2015, Microsoft)
• Safari (2003, Apple)
• Opera (1995, Opera Software)

Key Points :

• First Web Browser → World Wide Web (Tim Berners-Lee, 1990).

• Most used browser → Google Chrome.

Search Engine
A Search Engine is a software system that searches the World Wide Web and returns results based on user
queries.

Functions:

• Crawling → Collects web data using bots/spiders.

• Indexing → Organizes data.
• Ranking → Displays results using algorithms.

Examples:

• Google (1998, Larry Page & Sergey Brin) → Most used worldwide.
• Bing (2009, Microsoft).
• Yahoo! (1995).
• DuckDuckGo (2008, privacy-focused).
• Baidu (2000, China).

Key Points :

• First Search Engine → Archie (1990).

• Google founded in 1998 → By Larry Page & Sergey Brin.
• DuckDuckGo → Known for privacy.
Important Internet Terms
Term Definition Key Point
Downloading Copying data/files from the internet/server → your Example: Saving a PDF from a
computer. website.
Uploading Sending data/files from your computer → Example: Posting a photo on social
internet/server. media.
Bandwidth Maximum amount of data transferred over a Measured in Mbps/Gbps.
network in a given time.
Latency Time delay between sending and receiving data. Low latency = faster response.
IP Address Unique numerical label assigned to each device on Types: IPv4 (32-bit), IPv6 (128-
a network. bit).
Domain Human-readable address of a website. Example: www.google.com
Name
URL Uniform Resource Locator = Full web address. Example: https://www.ssc.nic.in
ISP Internet Service Provider. Example: Airtel, Jio, BSNL.
Cookies Small files stored on a user’s browser to track Used for personalization & ads.
preferences.
Cache Temporary storage in browser for faster website Example: Images saved for reuse.
loading.

Email
Email (Electronic Mail) is a method of exchanging digital messages over the Internet.

Basics of Email
• Works on client-server model.
• Uses protocols: SMTP (Send), POP3 & IMAP (Receive).
• Requires a unique email address (e.g., [email protected]).

Structure of an Email
Part Explanation Example
To Main recipient(s) [email protected]
CC (Carbon Copy) Secondary recipients (visible to all) [email protected]
BCC (Blind Carbon Copy) Recipients hidden from others [email protected]
Subject Topic/heading of email “Exam Admit Card”
Body Main content/message “Please find attached…”
Attachments Files added with email PDFs, images, docs
Signature Sender’s contact info at end “Regards, Abhishek Rai”

Functions of Email
Function Explanation

Sending Composing and transmitting a message using SMTP.

Receiving Getting emails via POP3/IMAP.

 Reply Responding to the sender.

Reply All Responding to sender + all recipients.

Forward Sending received mail to another person.

Attach Adding files to an email.

CC/BCC Copying recipients (visible/hidden).

Features of Email
Feature Explanation
Inbox Stores received emails.
Outbox/Sent Stores sent emails.
Drafts Stores unsent/half-written emails.
Spam/Junk Stores unwanted mails (ads, phishing).
Trash/Deleted Stores deleted mails (temporary).
Archive Stores old mails safely without deleting.
Attachments Allows adding files (Docs, PDFs, Images).
Signature Auto-added sender info (name, contact).
Search Helps find specific emails.

E-Banking & Payment Systems

E-Banking (Electronic Banking) refers to using electronic channels like Internet, Mobile, ATMs, and
Payment Gateways to provide banking services. It enables fund transfer, bill payments, account
management, and online shopping without visiting a bank branch.

NEFT (National Electronic Funds Transfer)

Feature Details
Launched by RBI (2005)
Type Electronic fund transfer system
Mode Batch-wise settlement (hourly batches)
Limit No minimum, no maximum (depends on bank)
Availability 24×7 since Dec 2019
Use Secure transfer of funds between banks in India

RTGS (Real Time Gross Settlement)

Feature Details
Launched by RBI (2004)
Type Real-time, individual settlement
 Mode Instant settlement (gross basis)
Limit Minimum ₹2 lakh, no upper limit
Availability 24×7 (since Dec 2020)
Use High-value urgent transfers

ECS (Electronic Clearing Service)

Feature Details
Type Bulk transfer system
Variants ECS Debit (loan EMI, bills), ECS Credit (salary, dividends)
Use Repetitive & bulk transactions
Status Being replaced by NACH (National Automated Clearing House) under
NPCI

IMPS (Immediate Payment Service)

Feature Details
Launched by NPCI (2010)
Mode Instant, 24×7 transfer
Limit Upto ₹5 lakh (as per RBI)
Medium Mobile number + MMID, Account no. + IFSC, UPI
Use Quick retail transfers, mobile banking

NPCI (National Payments Corporation of India)

• Established: 2008 (by RBI & IBA).
• Objective: To create a robust retail payment and settlement system in India.
• Major Products/Platforms:
o IMPS (Immediate Payment Service)
o RuPay Card (domestic card network)
o UPI (Unified Payments Interface) – launched 2016
o Bharat Bill Payment System (BBPS)
o AEPS (Aadhaar Enabled Payment System)
o NACH (National Automated Clearing House)

Networking
Networking is the practice of connecting multiple computers or devices to share resources, exchange data,
and communicate efficiently.

Types of Networks (Based on Coverage Area)

Type Full Form Coverage / Use Examples
PAN Personal Area Network Very small range (1–10 meters) Bluetooth, Hotspot,
Tethering
LAN Local Area Network Limited area (home, office, school) Ethernet, Wi-Fi in offices
 WLAN Wireless LAN LAN using wireless technology Wi-Fi router at home
MAN Metropolitan Area Covers a city/metropolitan area Cable TV networks
Network
WAN Wide Area Network Very large geographical area Internet
(country/world)
SAN Storage Area Network High-speed network for storage devices Data centers
VPN Virtual Private Network Secure private network over public Remote office
internet connectivity

Types of Data Communication

Data communication means exchange of data between devices through transmission media.

Type Direction Explanation Example

Simplex One-way only Data flows in one direction TV broadcast,
Keyboard → CPU

Half- Two-way, but one at Both devices can send/receive, Walkie-talkie

Duplex a time but not simultaneously

Full- Two-way Both devices can transmit & Telephone, Internet

Duplex simultaneously receive at the same time

Network Topology
Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of nodes (computers/devices) in a
network.

Topology Structure Advantages Disadvantages

Bus Single backbone Simple, cost-effective If main cable fails →
cable with all nodes whole network fails;
attached collisions common
Star All devices Easy to install/manage, Central device failure
connected to a failure of one node breaks network
central hub/switch doesn’t affect others
Ring Each device Data flows in one One node/cable failure
connected to two direction, predictable can break network
others forming a
circle
Mesh Every device Highly reliable, no Very expensive,
connected to every single point of failure complex
other device
Tree Combination of star Scalable, structured If backbone fails →
(Hierarchical) + bus whole network fails
Hybrid Combination of two Flexible, efficient Complex & costly
or more topologies
Point-to-Point Direct link between Simple, fast Only two devices
two devices connected

Networking Devices
Device Function Key Point / Example
Router Connects multiple networks, forwards data Internet router in
packets using IP addresses homes/offices
Switch Connects devices within a LAN, forwards data to Faster than hub
specific device using MAC address
Hub Connects devices in LAN, broadcasts data to all Cheap, but less efficient
Bridge Connects two LAN segments, filters traffic using Works at Data Link
MAC Layer
Gateway Connects two different networks using different Router often works as
protocols gateway
Modem Converts digital signals ↔ analog signals for DSL/ADSL modems
internet access
Access Point Extends Wi-Fi network; connects wireless devices Wi-Fi hotspots
(AP) to wired LAN
Repeater Amplifies/extends network signals Extends LAN/WAN
range
Firewall Filters network traffic for security Hardware/software-
based
Malware and Its Types
Malware (Malicious Software) refers to any program or code designed to disrupt, damage, steal, or gain
unauthorized access to computer systems.

Major Types of Malware

Type Definition Key Features / Effects Example
Virus Attaches itself to files/programs and Needs host program, ILOVEYOU virus
spreads when files are shared. corrupts files.
Worm Self-replicating malware that spreads No host needed, SQL Slammer
through networks. consumes bandwidth.
Trojan Appears as a useful program but secretly Hidden backdoors, data Zeus Trojan
Horse damages system. theft.
Ransomware Locks/encrypts data and demands Data hostage, financial WannaCry, Petya
ransom. loss.
Spyware Secretly monitors user activity. Steals passwords, CoolWebSearch
browsing history.
Adware Automatically displays unwanted ads. Slows system, redirects Fireball
browsers.
Rootkit Provides hidden administrator access. Hard to detect, disables Stuxnet rootkit
security tools.
Keylogger Records keystrokes secretly. Steals login IDs, Ardamax
passwords.
Botnet Network of infected computers Used for DDoS attacks. Mirai botnet
controlled remotely.
Logic Bomb Malicious code triggered by specific Hidden inside legit Time bomb in
event/date. software. software

Hacking, Hackers & Cybersecurity Concepts

Hacking – Definition
Hacking is the act of gaining unauthorized access to computer systems, networks, or data with the intent to
steal, modify, or damage information.

Types of Hacking
Type Description Example
Ethical Hacking Authorized hacking to test security. Penetration testing
Cracking Breaking security for malicious purposes. Password cracking
Phishing Attack Fake websites/emails to steal credentials. Fake bank login page
Spoofing Pretending to be a trusted source (IP, email, Email spoofing
website).
Snooping Unauthorized monitoring of data. Packet sniffing
Denial of Service Flooding servers with traffic to crash them. Botnet attacks
(DoS/DDoS)
SQL Injection Malicious SQL code into database queries. Exploiting login
forms
Hackers & Their Types
Type of Hacker Hat Color Nature
White Hat Ethical Improves security (authorized)
Black Hat Malicious Illegal hacking for personal gain
Grey Hat Mixed Explores without permission, but not always harmful
Red Hat Vigilante Attacks black-hat hackers
Blue Hat External tester Security testing before product release
Script Kiddie Amateur Uses pre-made tools to hack without deep knowledge

Key Cybersecurity Terms

Term Definition
Phishing Fraudulent emails/websites to steal sensitive data.
Spoofing Impersonating a trusted entity (IP/Email/Website).
Snooping Secretly monitoring network traffic or data.
Firewall Security system (hardware/software) that filters incoming & outgoing traffic.

Firewall – Functions
• Monitors traffic between internal network and external sources.
• Blocks unauthorized access while allowing legitimate communication.
• Types:
o Hardware Firewall → Physical device (router-based).
o Software Firewall → Installed program (Windows Firewall).
• Works on rules: Allow/Deny traffic based on IP, port, or protocol.

Computer Codes
Computer Codes are standardized systems of representing characters, numbers, and symbols in a form
understandable by computers (binary). These are essential for data storage, processing, and
communication.

Important Computer Codes

Code Full Form Size Key Features
BCD Binary Coded Decimal 4 bits per digit Represents each decimal
digit (0–9) in binary
separately
EBCDIC Extended Binary Coded 8 bits (1 byte) Developed by IBM;
Decimal Interchange mainly for mainframes
Code
ASCII American Standard Code 7 bits (128 chars), later Represents English letters,
for Information 8 bits (256 chars) digits, symbols
Interchange
Unicode Universal Code 16 bits (up to 1,114,112 Supports all world
code points) languages, symbols,
emojis
 Gray – Binary sequence where Prevents errors in digital
Code only one bit changes at circuits
a time
ISCII Indian Script Code for 8 bits Represents Indian
Information Interchange languages (Devanagari,
Tamil, etc.)

Logic Gates
Logic Gates are the basic building blocks of digital circuits. They take one or more binary inputs (0 or 1)
and produce a single binary output.

Basic Logic Gates

Gate Symbol Operation
AND ∧ Output is 1 only if all inputs are 1
OR ∨ Output is 1 if any input is 1
NOT ¬ Inverts the input

Universal Gates
Gate Symbol Operation
NAND ¬(A∧B) Output is inverse of AND
NOR ¬(A∨B) Output is inverse of OR

Exclusive Gates
Gate Symbol Operation

XOR (Exclusive OR) ⊕ Output is 1 when inputs are different

XNOR (Exclusive NOR) ⊙ Output is 1 when inputs are same

Truth Table of all Important Logic Gates

Inputs AND OR NAND NOR XOR XNOR

0, 0 0 0 1 1 0 1

0, 1 0 1 1 0 1 0

1, 0 0 1 1 0 1 0

1, 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
Microsoft and Its Products
Microsoft is a global technology company founded in 1975 by Bill Gates & Paul Allen, best known for
its Operating Systems, Productivity Software, and Cloud Services.

Key Microsoft Products

Product Description / Use Key Points (Exam-Relevant)
Windows OS World’s most widely used desktop First version in 1985; Windows 10
operating system. (2015), Windows 11 (2021).
MS Office Productivity software package. Includes Word, Excel, PowerPoint,
Suite Outlook, Access.
MS Word Word processor. Used for documents, reports, editing,
formatting.
MS Excel Spreadsheet software. Used for data analysis, charts, formulas,
financial reports.
MS Presentation software. Used for slideshows and professional
PowerPoint presentations.
MS Outlook Email & calendar management Used in offices for communication &
software. scheduling.
MS Access Database management tool. Used for small business databases.
OneNote Digital note-taking app. Works with stylus, handwriting
recognition.
Teams Collaboration & video Widely used in workplaces, especially
conferencing tool. post-2020.
SharePoint Document management & storage Enterprise-level collaboration.
system.
Skype Voice & video calling app. Precursor to Teams.
OneDrive Cloud storage service. Integrated with Windows & Office.

MS Word (Microsoft Word)

Microsoft Word is a word processing software developed by Microsoft. It is part of the MS Office Suite
and is used to create, edit, format, and print documents.
How to Start MS Word
• Windows: Start → All Programs → Microsoft Office → MS Word
• Shortcut: Press Win + R, type winword, and hit Enter.
• Desktop/Taskbar Icon: Double-click MS Word icon.

Key Features of MS Word (Interface Components)

Feature Description
Title Bar Displays the document name & program name (top of
window).
Quick Access Toolbar Small toolbar (top-left) with Save, Undo, Redo options.
Ribbon Tabbed toolbar (Home, Insert, Layout, etc.) containing
commands.
Tabs Categories in Ribbon (e.g., Home, Insert, Review).
Groups Sections inside tabs (Font, Paragraph, Styles).
Workspace (Document Main white area where text is typed.
Area)
Ruler Helps in alignment, indentation, and margins.
Status Bar Bottom bar showing page number, word count, language, etc.

Scroll Bars Vertical & horizontal bars to navigate document.

View Buttons Allow different views (Print Layout, Web Layout, Draft).
Zoom Control Adjusts zoom level of document view.

MS Word Tabs
MS Word interface is divided into tabs on the ribbon. Each tab contains related commands grouped
together.

Home Tab
• Purpose: Text formatting and editing.
• Groups & Key Commands:

Group Commands
Clipboard Cut, Copy, Paste, Format Painter
Font Bold, Italic, Underline, Font size, Color, Highlight
Paragraph Alignment, Line spacing, Bullets, Numbering, Indent
Styles Predefined text formatting styles
Editing Find, Replace, Select

Insert Tab
• Purpose: Insert objects into document.
 Group Commands
Pages Cover Page, Blank Page, Page Break
Tables Insert and format tables
Illustrations Pictures, Shapes, SmartArt, Charts, Icons
Links Hyperlink, Bookmark, Cross-reference
Header & Footer Page Number, Header, Footer
Text Text Box, WordArt, Drop Cap
Symbols Equations, Symbols

Design Tab
• Purpose: Document design and page style.

Group Commands
Document Formatting Themes, Colors, Fonts, Paragraph Spacing
Page Background Watermark, Page Color, Page Borders

Layout Tab
• Purpose: Page setup and arrangement.

Group Commands
Page Setup Margins, Orientation, Size, Columns, Breaks
Paragraph Indent, Spacing
Arrange Position, Wrap Text, Align, Group, Rotate

References Tab
• Purpose: Add references and citations.

Group Commands
Table of Contents Insert TOC
Footnotes Insert Footnote, Endnote
Citations & Bibliography Manage Sources, Insert Citation
Captions Insert Caption, Cross-reference
Index Mark Entry, Insert Index
Table of Authorities Insert Table of Authorities

Mailings Tab
• Purpose: For creating bulk letters and labels.

Group Commands
Create Envelopes, Labels
Start Mail Merge Letters, Email Messages
Write & Insert Fields Greeting Line, Address Block
Preview Results View merged document
Finish Complete mail merge
Review Tab
• Purpose: Proofing and reviewing.

Group Commands
Proofing Spelling & Grammar, Thesaurus, Word Count
Language Translate, Language settings
Comments Insert, Delete, Next/Previous
Tracking Track Changes, Reviewing Pane
Changes Accept/Reject changes
Protect Restrict Editing

View Tab
• Purpose: Change document view and layout.

Group Commands
Views Read Mode, Print Layout, Web Layout
Show Ruler, Gridlines, Navigation Pane
Zoom Zoom In/Out, One Page, Multiple Pages
Window New Window, Split, View Side by Side
Macros Record, Run Macros

Function Keys (F1–F12)

Key Function (Common Use)
F1 Opens Help (in most applications)
F2 Rename selected file/folder
F3 Opens search (Windows Explorer/MS Word)
F4 Alt + F4 → Close current window
F5 Refresh (Windows, Browsers)
F6 Moves cursor to address bar (browser)
F7 Spell & Grammar check (MS Word)
F8 Boot menu (Windows startup)
F9 Refresh document (MS Word), Recalculate (MS Excel)
F10 Activates menu bar (Shift + F10 = Right-click)
F11 Full-screen mode (browser, MS Excel)
F12 Save As dialog box (MS Word/Excel)

Important Shortcut Keys

Shortcut Function
Ctrl + C Copy
Ctrl + X Cut
Ctrl + V Paste
Ctrl + Z Undo
Ctrl + Y Redo
Ctrl + A Select All
Ctrl + S Save
Ctrl + P Print
Ctrl + F Find
 Ctrl + H Find & Replace
Ctrl + N New File/Window
Ctrl + O Open File
Ctrl + B Bold
Ctrl + I Italic
Ctrl + U Underline
Alt + Tab Switch between applications
Alt + F4 Close current window
Win + D Show desktop
Win + L Lock computer
Shift + Delete Permanently delete file
Ctrl + Shift + N Create new folder
F2 Rename file/folder

MS Excel
Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet software developed by Microsoft. It is part of the MS Office Suite and is
mainly used for data entry, analysis, calculations, charts, and financial reports.

Brief Overview
• Introduced: 1985 (Apple), 1987 (Windows).
• File Extension: .xls (old versions), .xlsx (new versions).
• Main Uses:
o Data entry & storage
o Mathematical & statistical calculations
o Data visualization (Charts, Graphs, Pivot Tables)
o Financial modeling & business reports

Basic Elements of MS Excel

Element Description / Function
Workbook The main Excel file; contains multiple worksheets.
Worksheet A single sheet in a workbook (default: Sheet1, Sheet2...).
Rows Horizontal lines in worksheet, numbered 1,2,3…
Columns Vertical lines, labeled A, B, C…
Cell Intersection of row & column; smallest data unit (e.g., A1, B3).
Cell Address Unique reference of a cell (Column + Row, e.g., C5).
Active Cell The currently selected cell (highlighted).
Formula Bar Displays/edit formulas or cell data.
Name Box Shows the address/name of active cell.
Ribbon Contains Tabs & Groups (Home, Insert, Formulas, etc.).
Status Bar Bottom bar showing average, sum, count, zoom level.
Sheet Tabs At the bottom, allow navigation between worksheets.
Range Group of adjacent cells (e.g., A1:C5).
Charts Graphical representation of data.
Pivot Table Summarizes and analyzes large datasets.
MS Excel Tabs
Microsoft Excel’s Ribbon interface is organized into tabs, each containing groups of related commands.

Home Tab
• Purpose: Basic editing & formatting.

Group Commands
Clipboard Cut, Copy, Paste, Format Painter
Font Bold, Italic, Underline, Font Size, Color
Alignment Left, Right, Center, Merge & Center, Wrap Text
Number Format cells as Currency, %, Date, Decimal
Styles Conditional Formatting, Cell Styles, Format as Table
Cells Insert, Delete, Format
Editing AutoSum, Fill, Sort, Filter, Find & Replace

Insert Tab
• Purpose: Add objects into worksheet.

Group Commands
Tables PivotTable, Table
Illustrations Pictures, Shapes, SmartArt, Icons
Charts Column, Line, Pie, Bar, Area, Combo
Sparklines Line, Column, Win/Loss
Filters Slicer, Timeline
Text Text Box, Header & Footer, WordArt
Symbols Equation, Symbol

Page Layout Tab

• Purpose: Page setup & printing adjustments.

Group Commands
Themes Themes, Colors, Fonts, Effects
Page Setup Margins, Orientation, Size, Print Area, Breaks
Scale to Fit Width, Height, Scale
Sheet Options Gridlines, Headings
Arrange Bring Forward, Send Backward, Align, Group

Formulas Tab
• Purpose: Insert and manage formulas.

Group Commands
Function Library Insert Function, AutoSum, Financial, Logical, Text, Date & Time, Lookup
Defined Names Name Manager, Define Name
Formula Auditing Trace Precedents, Trace Dependents, Error Checking
Calculation Calculate Now, Calculation Options
Data Tab
• Purpose: Manage and analyze data.

Group Commands
Get & Transform Data Import from text, web, database
Sort & Filter Sort Asc/Desc, Advanced Filter
Data Tools Text to Columns, Remove Duplicates, Data Validation, What-If Analysis
Forecast Forecast Sheet, Scenario Manager
Outline Group, Subtotal

Review Tab
• Purpose: Proofing and protecting.

Group Commands
Proofing Spelling, Thesaurus
Accessibility Accessibility Checker
Comments New Comment, Delete, Next/Previous
Protect Protect Sheet, Protect Workbook, Allow Edit Ranges

View Tab
• Purpose: Adjust worksheet view.

Group Commands
Workbook Views Normal, Page Break Preview, Page Layout
Show Ruler, Gridlines, Formula Bar, Headings
Zoom Zoom In/Out, 100%
Window New Window, Arrange, Freeze Panes, Split
Macros Record Macro, Use Relative References

MS Excel – Formulas & Functions

Formulas in Excel (Basics)
• A formula is an expression used to calculate values in Excel.
• Every formula starts with =.
• Example: =A1+B1 (adds values of cell A1 and B1).

Most Common Excel Functions

Function Syntax Use
SUM =SUM(A1:A10) Adds values in a range
AVERAGE =AVERAGE(A1:A10) Finds mean of values
MIN =MIN(A1:A10) Smallest value in range
MAX =MAX(A1:A10) Largest value in range
COUNT =COUNT(A1:A10) Counts numeric entries
COUNTA =COUNTA(A1:A10) Counts non-empty cells
ROUND =ROUND(A1,2) Rounds value to specified digits
 NOW =NOW() Displays current date & time
TODAY =TODAY() Displays current date only

Logical Functions
Function Syntax Use
IF =IF(A1>50,"Pass","Fail") Returns one value if condition is true, another if false
AND =AND(A1>50,B1<100) Returns TRUE if all conditions are true
OR =OR(A1>50,B1<100) Returns TRUE if any condition is true
NOT =NOT(A1>50) Reverses logical value

Lookup & Reference Functions

Function Syntax Use
VLOOKUP =VLOOKUP(lookup_value, table_array, Searches vertically in a table
col_index, FALSE)
HLOOKUP =HLOOKUP(lookup_value, table_array, Searches horizontally in a table
row_index, FALSE)
INDEX =INDEX(A1:C5,2,3) Returns value from a given row
& column in a range
MATCH =MATCH(50,A1:A10,0) Returns position of value in a
range
LOOKUP =LOOKUP(lookup_value, lookup_vector, Searches a value and returns a
result_vector)
match
XLOOKUP =XLOOKUP(lookup_value, lookup_array, Modern replacement of
return_array)
(Excel 365) VLOOKUP & HLOOKUP

MS PowerPoint
Microsoft PowerPoint is a presentation software developed by Microsoft (part of MS Office Suite). It is
used to create slideshows, business presentations, educational content, and reports.

Brief Overview
• Introduced: 1987 (by Forethought Inc., acquired by Microsoft).
• File Extensions: .ppt (older versions), .pptx (latest versions).
• Purpose: Visual communication with text, images, charts, audio, and video.

Basic Components of MS PowerPoint

Component Description / Use
Slide A single page in a presentation; contains text, images, charts, videos.
Slide Deck Complete collection of slides in a presentation file.
Slide Layout Predefined structure (Title Slide, Two Content, Comparison, etc.).
Slide Master Controls overall design/theme of slides (fonts, colors, backgrounds).
Placeholder Pre-formatted boxes to insert content (text, images, charts).
Slide Sorter Displays all slides in thumbnail view for easy reordering.
View
Notes Pane Area to add speaker notes for each slide.
Transitions Visual effects between slides.
Animations Effects applied to objects (text, shapes, images) within slides.
 Ribbon Toolbar at the top (Home, Insert, Design, Transitions, Animations, Slide Show,
Review, View).
Status Bar Bottom bar showing slide number, design themes, zoom.

Important Tabs in MS PowerPoint

Tab Main Purpose Key Features / Groups
Home Basic editing & Clipboard (Cut, Copy, Paste), Slides (New Slide, Layout), Font (Bold,
formatting Italic, Color), Paragraph (Alignment, Bullets), Drawing (Shapes),
Editing (Find, Replace)
Insert Add elements to Tables, Pictures, Shapes, SmartArt, Charts, Text Box, WordArt,
slides Header & Footer, Audio/Video
Design Slide themes & Themes, Variants, Slide Size, Background (Watermark, Borders,
styles Colors)
Transitions Slide-to-slide Transition Effects (Fade, Wipe, Push), Sound, Duration, Apply to All
effects
Animations Effects inside Entrance, Emphasis, Exit, Motion Paths, Animation Pane, Timing
slide objects
Slide Show Presenting slides From Beginning, From Current Slide, Rehearse Timings, Record Slide
Show, Presenter View
Review Proofing & Spelling & Grammar, Thesaurus, Language, Translate, Comments,
collaboration Compare, Protect
View Different viewing Normal View, Outline, Slide Sorter, Notes Page, Slide Master, Ruler,
modes Gridlines, Zoom, Macros

Number System
The Number System is the method of representing numbers using different symbols (digits). Computers
use different number systems internally and for programming.

Types of Number System

Number System Base (Radix) Digits Used Example

Decimal (Denary) 10 0–9 145, 2025

Binary 2 0, 1 1010 (10 in decimal)

Octal 8 0–7 725 (Octal) = 469 (Decimal)

Hexadecimal 16 0–9, A–F 2A (Hex) = 42 (Decimal)

Cryptography
Cryptography is the science of securing communication by converting information into an unreadable
format (encryption) and then converting it back (decryption) using keys. It ensures confidentiality,
integrity, authentication, and non-repudiation in data communication.
Types of Cryptography
Type Description Key Points / Examples
Symmetric Key Same key is used for encryption & Fast, but key distribution is
Cryptography decryption. difficult.
Example: DES, AES, Blowfish
Asymmetric Key Uses two keys: Public Key Secure key exchange, slower
Cryptography (Public-Key) (encryption) & Private Key than symmetric.
(decryption). Example: RSA, ECC
Hash Functions One-way encryption; no decryption Used in password storage,
possible. digital signatures.
Example: MD5, SHA-1, SHA-
256
Hybrid Cryptography Combines symmetric + asymmetric Symmetric used for speed,
methods. asymmetric for key exchange.
Example: SSL/TLS (HTTPS)
Quantum Cryptography Uses principles of quantum mechanics Cutting-edge; nearly impossible
to secure data. to hack.
Example: Quantum Key
Distribution (QKD)

Applications of Cryptography
• Data Security → Protects sensitive data.
• Digital Signatures → Ensures authenticity of sender.
• Online Banking & E-Commerce → Secures transactions.
• Email Encryption → Protects communication.
• Blockchain & Cryptocurrencies → Uses cryptographic hashing.