Conservation of energy: When a pulse is Every element has the same total energy.

broken up into reflected and transmittedparts 1

at a boundary, the sum of the energies of the Every element can be modeled as a SHM with
two pulses must equalthe energy of the Its kinetic energy is: ∆K=1/2(μ ∆x)*(Vy)^2
original pulse
Energy in waves:
Total kinetic energy in one wavelength
Total mechanical energy is:
Total potential energy in one wavelength

1-The pulse travelsthrough the light string

When a light string is attached to a heavier and reaches the boundary. 2-The part of the
string. pulse that is reflected is inverted. 3-The
If the boundary is intermediate between the
reflected pulse has a smaller amplitude
last two extremes – Part of the energy in the
Transmission of a Wave
through the boundary incident pulse is
1-Part of the pulse is reflectedand part is
reflected and part undergoes transmission
When heavier stringis attached to a light transmitted. 2-The reflected part is not
string. inverted.

Using the Fixed end: When the pulse reaches the

superposition support, the pulse moves back along the The pulse is inverted.
principle, we find that string in the opposite direction.
Reflection of a Wave
the resultant wave
function at the point is Free end: With a free end, the string is free to
The pulse is not inverted.
move vertically.
Beating: is the periodic variation in
Beat frequency is the
amplitude at a given point due to the
difference in frequency
superposition of two waves having slightly
between the two sources.
different frequencies. where no medium is A pulse traveling to the right on a long string
Electromagnetic Waves required to propagate.
Example: Visible-light The solution to one-dimensional wave
equation
Average frequency:
A pulse traveling to the left on a long string
Where some physical medium is
Mechanical waves being distributed
Beats

Antinodes:
Where the The speed of waves on Strings
occurs when cos(φ/2)= ± 1. This is true, for
amplitude is The wave (speed v) in a vibrating string is
example, when φ = 0, 2π, 4π, ...rad when φ is constructive interferance.
maximum. determined by the tension F and the linear
an even multiple of π.
Interference: The resultant of two or more It consists of Antinodes density μ, or mass per unit length.
When φ is equal to π rad or to any odd waves
Waves and Nodes:
Nodes:
A
multiple of π, then cos(φ/2) = cos(π/2)= 0. Where the
destructive interference. It is combination of transverse and
Thus, the resultant wave has zero amplitude amplitude
everywhere. longitudinal waves.
is =0
Complex Wave
The displacement of medium (for mechanical Depth->longitudinal
The wavelength = 2
waves) is the algebraic sum of all the waves A WAVE is a disturbance which causes Example: Surface Water
of Antinodes = 3 of
acting on the medium. energy to be transported from one location Nodes. Surface-> transversal
Wave Superposition Superposition and interference to another, without a transfer of mass.
Works for both longitudinal waves and for General Longitudinal Wave: A traveling wave or pulse
transverse waves. mathematical that causes the elements of the disturbed
expression for the ( medium to move parallel to the direction of
Frequency): fn=n( propagation
Standing Waves in a f1)=nv/λ1=nv/2l
Constructive interferance Standing
string fixed at both Transverse Wave: A traveling wave or pulse
Waves ends General that causes the elements of the disturbed
Where, n= 1, 2, 3, ...
mathematical medium to move *perpendicular* to the
expression for the ( direction of propagation.
Interferece of sound waves Wavelength): λn=
Destructive interferance 2l/n Some source of disturbance.
Where, n= 1, 2, 3, ...
General mathematical
Standing Waves in Mechanical waves requirements A medium that can be disturbed
∆r=|r2-r1| expression for the (
two free ends
Wavelength): λn=2l/n
Some physical mechanism
A “sinusoidal wave” can be expressed
The wave represented by the curve shown is General mathematical
mathematically using a sine or cosine
a sinusoidal wave expression for the (
function (plus some phase angle).
Frequency): fn=(2n-1)(
f1)=(2n-1)v/λ1=(2n-1)
A = amplitudeof the wave = maximum
Standing Waves v/ 4l
value of the displacement (m).
in one fixed end
λ = wavelength of the wave
General mathematical expression for the (
Wavelength): λn=4l/(2n-1)

Represents law:
We can define two “new” quantities as
Sinusoidal Waves
Power Associated with a Wave P ∝ F^2
f(frequency of the wave): number of times
that a crest passes a fixed point each second.
P ∝ A^2
To create a series of pulses, the string can be
attached to an oscillating blade. P ∝ wave speed

In these cases, the wave varible is the height,

This is different than the speed of z, of the wavesurface above its equilibrium
the wave (v) as it propagates along height. The surface is described by the
the string. coordinate x and y.
V is constant VS Vy varies sinusoidally ( Sinusoidal Waves on a String
The transverse speed (of a point P on the
SHM). k: wave number. -kX: wave number relatively
string) is:
Waves in two dimesnsions to x direction -kY: wave number relatively to
y direction
The transverse accelerationof the element

V is a maximum at y= 0
The maximum values of the transverse speed
and transverse acceleration are:
a is a maximum at y= ±A The equivalent complex representation:

Sound waves are the most common example

of longitudinal waves.

Molecules in the air vibrate about some

average position produce changes in density
and pressure creating the compressions and
rarefactions.

sounds below the range of human hearing (

infrasonic
with frequencies less than 20 Hz)

sounds above the range of human

ultrasonic
hearing (with frequencies more than 20 kHz)

Longitudinal wave in a long bar.

depends on the material that the sound is
The speed of sound.
traveling in.
Longitudinal wave in a fluid.

Intensity: The amount of energy that a wave

Sound waves carries past a certain area each second is the
intensity of the sound.

Sound Level in Decibels

In general form:

If Source moving toward receiver (observer)

v of observer is zero then Vs (+ve)

Doppler Effect: Variation of the frequency

If source moving away from observer then v
depending of the speeds of the source and
of observer is zeron the Vs is (-ve)
the speed of the receiver.

Observer is moving toward source thr v of

source is zero then Vo is (+ve)

Observer is moving away from source. The v

of source is zero then Vo id (-ve)