Computer Network

Protocol Layering

1. Principles of Protocol Layering

Protocol layering is based on a few design principles:

1. Each layer performs a well-defined function

o Example: Transport layer provides reliable delivery, Network layer provides
addressing & routing.
2. Each layer communicates only with adjacent layers
o Upper layer requests services from the layer below it.
o Lower layer provides services to the layer above it.

3. Layers are independent

o Changes in one layer should not affect other layers.
4. Peer-to-peer communication
o Two systems communicate as if their corresponding layers are directly connected
(logical connection).
5. Modularity and standardization
o Each layer has standard protocols → allows interoperability between different
systems and vendors.

2. Logical Connection
 Logical connection means that the same layers on two communicating devices exchange
information as if they are directly connected, even though data actually travels through all
intermediate layers.

👉 Example:

 Transport layer on Host A talks to transport layer on Host B using TCP/UDP.

 In reality, data passes through lower layers (Network, Data Link, Physical) but appears
logically direct between the two transport layers.
3. Layered Architecture
 A layered architecture divides the communication process into separate layers.
 Each layer:
o Performs specific tasks.
o Uses services from the layer below.
o Provides services to the layer above.

Example Models:

(A) OSI Model (7 Layers)

1. Application – Network services for end users.

2. Presentation – Data format translation, encryption.
3. Session – Dialog control.
4. Transport – Reliable data delivery (TCP).
5. Network – Addressing & routing (IP).

1. Data Link – Framing, error detection.

2. Physical – Transmission of raw bits.

(B) TCP/IP Model (4 Layers)

1. Application Layer – (HTTP, FTP, DNS).

2. Transport Layer – (TCP/UDP).
3. Internet Layer – (IP, ICMP).
4. Network Access Layer – (Ethernet, Wi-Fi).

TCP/IP Protocol Suite & OSI Model

1. Overview of TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol)
o A set of protocols that enable communication over the Internet.
o Developed by DARPA in the 1970s.
o Foundation of modern networking.

4 Layers of TCP/IP

1. Application Layer
o Provides services directly to users.
o Protocols: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, DHCP, TELNET, SSH.
 2. Transport Layer
o Responsible for end-to-end communication, reliability, error control.
o Protocols: TCP (connection-oriented, reliable), UDP (connectionless, fast).

 Internet Layer

 Handles logical addressing & routing of packets.

 Protocols: IP (IPv4, IPv6), ICMP, ARP, RARP.

 Network Access Layer (Link Layer)

 Defines how data is physically transmitted over the medium.

 Protocols: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, PPP.

2. Addressing in TCP/IP
TCP/IP uses four types of addressing:

1. Physical Address (MAC Address)

o Hardware address of NIC (e.g., 48-bit for Ethernet).
o Used at the Data Link layer.
2. Logical Address (IP Address)
o Identifies each device uniquely in the network.
o IPv4 (32-bit), IPv6 (128-bit).
o Used at the Internet layer.
3. Port Address
o Identifies the specific process/application on a device.
o Example: HTTP → Port 80, FTP → Port 21.
o Used at the Transport layer.
4. Specific Address (URL / Domain Name)
o Used at the Application layer for user-friendly identification.
o Example: www.example.com

3. OSI Reference Model (7 Layers)

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a conceptual framework developed by
ISO to standardize networking.

7 Layers of OSI:

1. Application Layer → Provides network services to end users (HTTP, FTP, SMTP).
2. Presentation Layer → Data translation, encryption, compression.
3. Session Layer → Dialog control, synchronization, session management.
4. Transport Layer → End-to-end delivery, reliability, flow/error control (TCP, UDP).
5. Network Layer → Logical addressing, routing (IP, routers).
 6. Data Link Layer → Framing, error detection, physical addressing (MAC, switches).
7. Physical Layer → Transmission of raw bits over medium (cables, radio).

Fundamentals of Data & Signals

1. Data
 Data = Information that needs to be communicated between devices.
 Two types of data:

(A) Analog Data

 Continuous values.
 Vary smoothly over time (infinite possible values).
 Examples:
o Human voice
o Temperature readings
o Video signals

(B) Digital Data

 Discrete values.
 Represented by binary digits (0 and 1).
 Easier to store, process, and transmit.
 Examples:
o Text (ASCII codes)
o Images in pixel form
o Computer files

2. Signals
 To transmit data through a medium, it must be converted into a signal.
 Signal = Electrical or electromagnetic representation of data.

👉 Relationship:

 Analog data → Analog or digital signals (after modulation/digitization).

 Digital data → Digital or analog signals (after encoding/modulation).
2. Periodic Signal
 Definition: A signal that repeats its pattern at regular intervals over time.
 Has a well-defined Period (T) and Frequency (f = 1/T).
 Example: Sine wave, cosine wave, square wave.
 Used in: Carrier waves, clock signals, radio transmission.

👉 Equation for sine wave (periodic signal):

3. Aperiodic Signal
 Definition: A signal that does not repeat its pattern over time.
 No fixed period or frequency.
 Example: Human speech, computer data, music.
 Real-world data signals are mostly aperiodic.
4. Analog Signal
 Continuous waveform, varies smoothly with time.
 Basic form: Sine Wave.

(A) Sine Wave Equation:

5. Parameters of a Sine Wave

1. Peak Amplitude (A): Signal’s strength or maximum value.
2. Period (T): Duration of one cycle.
3. Frequency (f): Number of cycles per second (Hz).
4. Phase (ϕ): Shift of waveform along the time axis.

6. Time Domain & Frequency Domain

 Time Domain Representation: Signal amplitude vs. time.
o Shows how the signal changes over time.
 Frequency Domain Representation: Signal amplitude vs. frequency.
o Shows what frequencies are present in the signal.

👉 Frequency domain analysis is done using Fourier Transform.

7. Composite Signal
 Definition: Real-world signals (voice, music, data) are not pure sine waves but
combinations of many sine waves.
 Fourier Analysis: Any composite signal can be decomposed into a set of simple sine
waves with different amplitudes, frequencies, and phases.
 Examples:
o Voice → mixture of multiple frequencies.
o Data traffic → irregular, aperiodic signals.

1. Peak Amplitude (A)

 Maximum value (height) of a signal measured from its average value.
 Represents signal strength or power.
 Unit: volts (V).
👉 Higher amplitude = stronger signal.

3. Phase (ϕ)
 Describes the position of the waveform relative to time zero.
 Measured in degrees (°) or radians (rad).
 Example:
o A 0° phase starts at zero.
 o A 90° phase starts at its maximum.

4. Time Domain vs Frequency Domain

 Time Domain:
o Represents signal amplitude vs. time.
o Shows how the signal changes over time.
o Useful for analyzing when signals occur.
 Frequency Domain:
o Represents signal amplitude vs. frequency.
o Shows which frequencies make up the signal.
o Found using Fourier Transform.

👉 Example:

 In time domain: Voice signal looks irregular.

 In frequency domain: It can be broken into multiple frequency components.

5. Composite Signal
 Definition: A signal that is made up of two or more sine waves with different
amplitudes, frequencies, and phases.
 Real-world signals (voice, music, video, computer data) are composite.
 Fourier Analysis: Any composite signal can be decomposed into simple sine waves.
 Composite signals can be periodic (if component frequencies are multiples) or aperiodic
(irregular).

👉 Example:

 Human voice = multiple frequencies at once.

 Music = mix of notes (sine waves) at different amplitudes.