🧬 Chapter 9: Heredity – Notes
🌱 1. What is Heredity?
Heredity = the process by which traits (characters) are passed from parents to
offspring.
Variation = small differences between individuals of the same species.
➡️ Heredity + Variation = Evolution
🧠 2. Key Terms
Term Meaning
Character A feature (e.g. height, colour)
Trait A specific form of character (e.g. tall or short)
Gene Unit of heredity; controls a trait
Alleles Alternate forms of a gene (e.g. Tall = T, Short = t)
Dominant trait Expressed when one copy present (T)
Recessive trait Expressed only when both alleles same (tt)
Genotype Genetic makeup (TT, Tt, tt)
Phenotype Physical appearance (Tall, Short)
3. Mendel’s Experiments
Father of Genetics: Gregor Johann Mendel 🌿
Experiment: Pea plant (Pisum sativum)
Reasons for choosing pea plant:
Easy to grow
Short life cycle
Many contrasting traits
7 Contrasting Traits:
Character Dominant Recessive
Height Tall Dwarf
Flower colour Violet White
Seed colour Yellow Green
Seed shape Round Wrinkled
Pod colour Green Yellow
Pod shape Inflated Constricted
Flower position Axial Terminal
⚖️ 4. Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance
(a) Law of Dominance
In a cross between two contrasting traits, only one trait (dominant) is expressed
in F₁ generation.
Example:
T (tall) × t (short) → F₁: all Tall (Tt)
(b) Law of Segregation
During gamete formation, alleles separate and only one enters each gamete.
Hence traits can reappear in F₂.
F₁ Self-cross: Tt × Tt
→ F₂ ratio:
Genotypic: 1 TT : 2 Tt : 1 tt
Phenotypic: 3 Tall : 1 Short
(c) Law of Independent Assortment
When two pairs of traits are considered, they separate independently during gamete
formation.
Example:
Round Yellow (RRYY) × Wrinkled Green (rryy) →
F₂ Ratio: 9 Round Yellow : 3 Round Green : 3 Wrinkled Yellow : 1 Wrinkled Green
🧩 5. Difference Between Inherited and Acquired Traits
Inherited Traits Acquired Traits
Passed from parents to offspring Not inherited
Controlled by genes Due to environment or habits
e.g. Eye colour, Blood group e.g. Learning to play guitar, scar
🧬 6. Sex Determination in Humans
Female: XX
Male: XY
Father decides child’s gender:
If sperm carries X → Girl (XX)
If sperm carries Y → Boy (XY)
🧠 Mother always gives X chromosome.
🧮 7. Monohybrid Cross Example
Parent: TT (Tall) × tt (Short)
Gametes: T and t
F1: Tt (Tall)
F2: TT, Tt, Tt, tt
Phenotypic Ratio → 3 Tall : 1 Short
🧮 8. Dihybrid Cross Example
Parent: RRYY × rryy
F1: RrYy (Round Yellow)
F2 Ratio → [Link]
🧫 9. Evolutionary Link
Variations help species adapt and survive.
Reproduction → Inheritance → Variation → Evolution.
🧠 10. Important Points to Remember
Genes are located on chromosomes.
DNA carries genetic information.
Traits are controlled by pairs of alleles.
Dominant allele masks recessive one.
Mutation → sudden change in gene/DNA.
Sex is determined by father’s sperm.
📘 Formula Summary
Concept Formula / Ratio
Current cross (monohybrid) 3:1 (phenotype)
Genotype ratio [Link]
Dihybrid ratio [Link]
🧠 Quick Revision Trick
“Tall traits travel truly through time.”
Means: Dominant traits (Tall) appear in F₁ and reappear in F₂ due to segregation.
