Defining research

The term research is a relative concept derived from the French verbs
recherché and chercher. Research stands for an activity that involves
searching, investigating, search for truth or search for knowledge.

The term research also has some technical definitions. Research may be
defined as a systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled
observations that may lead to the development of generalization, principles
or theories resulting in prediction and possible ultimate control of events
[Best, John and Kahn, 1993: 20].

Another definition by Mugenda and Mugenda [1999] states that: research

means, to carry out a diligent inquiry or a critical examination of given
phenomenon. It implies exhaustive study, investigation or experimentation
following some logical sequence. Therefore, research means a continued
search for new knowledge and understanding of the world around us.

Possible criteria for classifying research

Research can be classified on the basis of three major criteria, namely:

 The purpose or function of a research study
 The type of data used in a research study
 The methods or procedures employed in a research study
 Figure 2.1 summarizes the classification of research types.

Fig 2.1 Types of Research

TYPES OF RESEARCH

Classification by Classification by
purpose/function Types of Data Classification by
methods/Procedur
es.
Pure/Basic Quantitativ Descriptive
Descriptive
Research e Research
Research
Research
Applied
Research Qualitative Evaluation
Evaluation
Research Research
Research

Action Correlation
Research Research
Case Study
Historical
Research
Experimental
Research
Ethnographic
Research

Casual-Comparative
Research
Applied research
Applied research is conducted to test or evaluate the usefulness of
(basic/pure) research in solving practical problems or improving current
conditions

Basic or pure research is primarily designed to develop knowledge about

phenomenon, simply for the sake of understanding it better. Applied
research, on the other hand, seeks knowledge that will modify or improve
the present situation (Shaughnessy, et al, 2000)
Applied research is designed to determine specifically whether theory
predicts specific outcomes in known circumstances. For example, we can
carry out a study to determine the effectiveness of teaching methods in
improving the performance of secondary school students in national
examination. Here, the issue is “the effectiveness of teaching methods” as
explained in educational theory. How well can the theoretical knowledge be
transformed into real practice in the classroom situation? Will the
applications of these theories yield expected outcomes in performance
improvement?

A good example of applied research in education is Research and

Development (R&D). Research and Development in education is concerned
with inventions, modifications and improvements. It creates new methods,
processes, and products, among other application.

Meaning and importance of a research proposal

Research is a major component in the modern technological world;

however, did you know that those who embark on proposal writing would do
so but only a few reach the target? We believe, you will plan, write and
execute your research proposal writing in such a way that you will complete
it.
Having worked through the first four sections, you may now begin to think
about developing a research proposal, which must be approved before you
start of collecting data because proposal writing is the first step in the
research process, which helps the researcher to think through each step of
the research project before embarking on it. You should consult literature
relevant to the following:

 Educational research
 Research methods appropriate to the one you wish to undertake and
 The characteristics of a research report
 It is also important to study certain research theses/reports to
determine what is expected of you
 Try to establish what has already been written on the
subject/problem you have identified, what results and conclusions
were made from it and which theories exist in the field that you can
link to justify your research problem

What is a research proposal, in your own view?

Look at a few suggested answers given here below and compare them with
yours.

 A research proposal can be described as the way in which

dependable and useful information about the education programme
is obtained. The proposal is an integral part of the entire educational
research process.
 A research proposal is a detailed description of a proposed study
designed to investigate a given problem.
 It is a plan of action for fulfilling a need. It is a sales document that is
honest, factual, and responsive to the needs of others.
 It is a written description of work to be performed that provides
enough information for a customer to make a purchase decision.
 A proposal demonstrates the researcher’s ability to think clearly
about the intended research or project.

The importance of a research proposal

Activity

State at least four reasons for writing a research proposal.

It has been noted that writing a good proposal has several merits that
include the following:

 The proposal writing itself is a training ground for the actual

performance of the work. It establishes:

 The conceptual design

 Initiates planning
 Identifies needed equipment and facilities and hence the cost
of the project
 Formulates needed work methods and procedures.
 Familiarizes the proposer (researcher/writer) with the scope,
intent, and content of work.

 An error of design, planning or estimating found during proposal

preparation creates less impact than if it is found during actual data
collection. Unnecessary alterations in the process of research, which
can be time-consuming and wasteful, can be avoided.
 A research proposal communicates the intentions of the researcher, the
purpose of his intended study and its significance together with a logical
plan for conducting the study.
 It is a written plan for a study spelling out in detail what the researcher
intends to do.
 The budget outline, which is part of the proposal, enables the researcher
to solicit funding for the project to establish issues such as the
 relevance, adequacy, clarity, usefulness, and appropriateness of
methods used in the study.
 The overall achievement of the research objective is also easily
evaluated, based on the proposal.
 A proposal compels you to state all your ideas in written form so that
they can be evaluated and improved upon by you and others.
 It can also serve as a guide when you conduct the study so that you do
not forget important procedural details.
 A neat, accurate, easily read, well-written and comprehensive proposal
provides a head start on writing the thesis or dissertation.
 It permits others to learn about the intended research and to offer
suggestions for improving the study. It helps the researcher clarify what
needs to be done and avoid unknown problems.
 In a research proposal problems are identified, questions or hypotheses
stated variables are identified and terms are defined. The subjects to be
included in the sample, the instruments(s) to be used, the research
design the procedures to be followed, how the data will be analyzed all
are spelt out in some detail and some brief review of previous related
literature is included.
 Allen (1975) in Mwiria and Wamahiu (1995:158) states that a proposal
will assist delineate the specific area of research and in clarifying the
purpose, scope, methodology overall organization, limitations of the
study and any special terms that may be unique to the study.

Types of proposals

There are basically two main types of proposals:

 Research proposal
 Project proposal
We shall briefly focus on each type of proposal.

The Research proposal

This is where a researcher proposes to undertake a piece of research on

some pertinent issue. A research proposal may be an academic research
proposal leading to a diploma, a Masters degree or a PhD. Most institutions
require various components that generally go into an academic research
proposal, however, there may be slight variations in format from one
institution to another. The student should know the accepted format before
embarking on writing a proposal. We shall do the same here so that you
know right away the KTTC research proposal format.

Other research proposals too are aimed at undertaking research to solve a

problem even though they may not be academic oriented; for example,
action research.

A non-academic proposal would not be as detailed as the academic one in

terms of components yet the quality should never be affected. For
example, any hypothesis may not be necessary.
The project proposal

This is the type of proposal, which is academic oriented but is action

oriented and aimed at undertaking certain activities to solve specific
problems.

It is possible to find a project proposal with a research component

especially when conducting baseline survey [or SWOT Analysis]

A project proposal is aimed at solving a specific problem, for example.

School feeding programmes, provision of health facilities and may others.

Activity

Think about problems in your community that may need to be included in a

project proposal as illustrated above. State at least four project proposals.

In a research proposal the outcome will be data that can be used as a basis
for proposing a project or data, which will contribute to new knowledge.
This also forms a basis for recommendations and action. Data collection
and analysis is carried out and a research report is written.

While a project proposal focuses on implementation of proposed strategies

and activities as well as on evaluation of the objectives, a research proposal
is focused on expected outcomes on which recommendations are based for
further action.

TOPIC 3: Format of a research proposal

Since the format depends on the Institution and may differ even from one
faculty to another. We shall give an outline for KTTC. Do not forget that
the components are universal except for the sequence and purpose.

Components of a research proposal

A list of the major elements or components of a research proposal is given
as a guideline to you as you undertake the challenging task of proposal
writing. This topic discusses important aspects of writing a research
proposal for a thesis or dissertation toward a higher certificate or degree. It
gives useful hints to ensure that a proposal meets the academic/faculty
requirements. Bearing in mind that carrying out research is a very
expensive and tedious venture, we feel it is important to ensure that you
prepare a good, quality proposal.

Researchers in educational institutions have a wide range of opinions

regarding what should go into a research proposal and what each
component entails. The differences in opinion are due to:

 Varied interests
  Educational backgrounds
 Biases
 Expertise
 Experiences of researchers
As a student developing a research proposal, you may expect to encounter
these differences from various lecturers at KTTC who may be your
supervisors. Therefore, proposal guidelines are important for you even
though having an acceptable standard may be difficult. In research, you
can decide on which component to emphasize, depending on what you or
the faculty considers being the major aspect of the proposed study.

The summary of the components of a research proposal preliminary is

presented herein:

 The title
 Declaration

An Introduction section, which includes:

 The background of the problem

 The statement of the problem
 Purpose (goal) and objectives of the research. Research
questions or hypotheses.
 Limitations and assumptions
 Definition of concepts (Acronyms/Abbreviations
 The theoretical and conceptual framework.

A Literature Review section where:

 The researcher reviews literature related to the topic under

investigation.

A Methodology section, which includes the description of:

 The research design

 The population, sample and sampling techniques
 Data collection procedures
 Data analysis techniques.

References/Bibliography

Appendices
 Time schedule
 The budget

Details of the research proposal components

1. The title

A research title should be descriptive, short, clear, self explanatory and

specific
 It should capture and reflect the content of the research proposal
  The title should clearly indicate the problem, the purpose of the
research. The variables, methodology, the target population,
outcome of the study, which is encompassing briefly the essential
elements of the study.
 It should be well focused in terms of the problem of study.

You need to start with a preliminary title because it may change as shifts in
emphasis occur normally with progression of literature reviews.

Avoid any obscure technical terms within the title. You can explain them
within the section including definition of terms/acronyms.

Activity

Now that you have read about the title, think about an area of study that
may be of interest to you. Write a title for your study. Does it have the
qualities mentioned?

2. The introduction section

This component compresses of several sub-section. We shall briefly outline

what each entails.

Activity

Let us for a moment think of why we always wish to let someone know who
we are, what we do, where we come from and incase of a teacher, the
subjects and classes that we teach. You could list any idea that crosses
your mind. Think of situations when you did introduce yourself to someone
or to a group of people why was it necessary?

Now we can turn to the introduction as a component of a research proposal.

It states the problem and cites important previous research. The
researcher justifies the importance of the problem, hence the need for the
study and oft times may try fitting it into a theoretical context. The
introductions thus;

 provides a basis for the study

 usually constitutes the first chapter of the proposal and is an
important component, which if well written, tells a lot of what is to
follow in the rest of the proposal.
An introduction should: stimulate the reader’s interest in the research
problem; create a good impression about the author and the research
project as a whole; and acquaint the reader with the problem to be
investigated by providing relevant background information.

An introduction section should include the following sub-section:

 The background of the problem

 The statement of the problem
 The objectives of the study
 Research questions or hypotheses (if any)
 The rationale or justification of the study
 The limitations and underlying assumptions (if any)
 The theoretical framework or conceptual model (wherever possible),
 Operational definition of terms.

The background to the problem: The background to the problem is an

essential part in any research proposal. It broadly introduces the
background and theoretical framework of the study. It is a concise,
descriptive, informative and climate building preamble culminating in a
statement of the problem being addressed. It should be written in a logical
and balanced way to portray the researcher’s vision of topical issues to be
investigated.

It is in the background to the problem that a global, regional and national

overview of the research topic is briefly discussed. It should be relevant
and help the reader to establish that there is need for investigation. It
describes briefly prior studies in the same field and points out specific areas
that have not been fully studied or areas that have doubtful facts and gaps
in knowledge that remain to be investigated. For example; if we take the
area :
“Female Education in Kenya”

Then you should give an overview of the status of female education

globally, regionally (in Africa) and nationally (in Kenya). This will enable the
reader have an idea of what is happening regarding the area under
investigation. It should also show how the study relates to developing
trends in educational thinking. The researcher is expected to justify why
resources should be committed to the proposed work. You must indicate
the benefits likely to accrue from the findings in relation to what has been
done, in that, ultimately research findings are for the benefit of the people.

The background to the problem should indicate clearly how the proposed
study departs from or adds to what exists in that educational discipline. You
need to quote authoritative sources in order to establish a frame of
reference. You will have a pretty clear idea on how to organize the
introduction by addressing some questions outlined herein.

 What current and previous studies have been done on the issues to
be studied?
 What is the available information on the magnitude, nature, and
causes of the problem?
 What are the present gaps in knowledge and what makes the
problem worth studying?
  What do you intend to do to solve the problem?
 What is the conceptual framework on which your study will be based
and what are the tentative hypotheses to be employed in answering
the questions?
 Does the solution to the problem have any practical or theoretical
significance?
 Have you stated the assumptions relevant to the study?
 What are the social, economic, political, technical and environmental
considerations involved?

You could now take note that when you have answered all these questions
you will be able to state reasons why the proposed study must be
undertaken.

The statement of the problem: the statement of the problem refers to

an explicit statement of the specific research topic to be investigated. It
should be clear, specific and manageable identifying as far as possible all
the variables in the study, outlining them in conceptual rather than
operational form.

In much the same way, we can look at another example of a research

problem.
“Failure in mathematics among girls in secondary schools”

In this topic, you should describe factors that make the stated problem a
critical issue to necessitate the study, thus, making a case for the research.
So how would you go about it?

Example:
Topic: “Elaborate on the consequences of girls failing in mathematics.
Look at the Topic, List in the given Boxes as may factors as possible.

Here is a list of some of the consequences which we considered. Compare

it with yours.

 Low enrolment of women in science and Engineering

 Gender inequality
 Few women in Management
 More women in social sciences
 Negative attitude towards mathematics by the girl child
 Lack of interest
 Lack of motivation
Now for something that may surprise you: The problem statement should
range from half (½) to two (2) pages, for you have to refer to relevant
literature to describe the effects. What this all adds up to is that a short
and uncomplicated problem statement is recommended.

Qualities of a good problem statement

You need to evaluate your statement of the problem before you plunge
deeper into the literature review. According to Best (1983), Borg and Gall
(1989) and Mulusu (1990) cited in Mwiria and Wamahiu (1995), qualities of
a good problem statement are:

 The ability to communicate to a sophisticated audience who do not

necessarily have the technical knowledge of the researcher
 A clear fit within the broader context of current theory and relevant
research, meaning that the problem addresses a significant issue
both theoretically and practically.
 The research ability that is if it is feasible to collect the necessary
data?
 Clarity and limited scope: if the problem is manageable with the
resources and time available to the researcher.
 A logical and clear relationship to the hypotheses, the research
questions or the specific objectives that follow the problem
statement.

In summary, the statement of the problem justifies the research project

especially when the problem is limited in scope and is well stated to
facilitate the development of the purpose, objectives and hypotheses of the
study. It is usually drawn from a brief review of the most important
literature and the theoretical background, outlined in the preceding section
[section 4].

The statement of the problem leads to the development of the purpose

which is presented here below.

The statement of purpose: This is a broad statement indicating what the

researcher intends to do about the problem being investigated. It identifies
the goal of the study, emphasizing mainly the practical outcomes. It serves
to elaborate upon the information implied in the title of the study. It should
be brief but specific giving a quick overview of the study itself. It helps to
focus the problem more clearly identifying the variables to be examined.

The purpose of the study can be written in two ways. One way is to state it
at the end of the problem statement section as follows:
“The purpose of this study is to find out the consequences of girls failing in
mathematics in secondary schools.”

It is hoped that the study would provide information that could be used to
develop policy recommendations for gender or creative procedures of
teaching mathematics. Using this format, the researcher states the
problem, and narrows down to the purpose statement towards the end of
the section. The first part of the statement of purpose is stated in
declarative form to describe the intended purpose. On the other hand, the
second part shows how a statement of purpose can also include how the
outcomes would be used to improve the subject or object of study.

Another way is for the researcher to have a separate subsection on the

purpose statement and then follow it with a brief rationale of the stated
purpose.

Whichever way it is presented, the purpose of the study should not exceed
ONE paragraph.
 Activity

Identify a research problem in Education and write the statement of

purpose.

Objectives of the study: An objective is s statement of purpose or the

intended specific outcomes of the study with or without criteria of
achievement; specified in long or short-term parameters.

Every study must have specific objectives to guide the investigation and
they should be cohesive, precise, testable, brief and logically arranged.
Objectives should be relevant to the problem statement and show the
relations between variables.

What purpose do objectives serve in a research study?

Table 5.1 lists some purposes of objectives

Table 5.1: Purposes of objectives

They set the scope of the study
They determine the kind of research questions which will be asked.
They determine the data collection and analysis procedures to be used.
They help to further clarify focus and specify the problem more accurately.

Activity

Visit your nearest library and consult research reports, theses or journals to
get an idea of how to state titles, purposes and objectives of the study.

Here is an example to illustrate what you should do:

Title: The distribution of educational resources and opportunities in

Kenya by location, sex and level.

General aim:Determine factors influencing the distribution of educational

resources.
Objectives: (i) examine the factors determining the levels and nature
of
educational resources and opportunities
(ii) analyze the socio-economic differences within regions
and social groups in relation to organization and
financing of educational system.

Research questions or hypotheses: Research questions and hypotheses

are normally used alternatively. The questions are usually posed so that
when answered, the responses will help in achieving the objectives of the
study.

To set the research questions, you convert the objectives into questions.
The only difference between research questions and objectives is that
research questions are stated in question form while objectives are in
statement form, hence when both are referring to the same phenomenon
then one set becomes redundant. You, therefore, choose only one set
either research questions or objectives to be included in the study.
However, it is possible to have both in a proposal but only when the
objectives are broader and the research questions more specific.

Look at this example of how the preceding first two objectives can be
converted to research questions:

 What are the causes of failure in Mathematics by girls in secondary

schools?
 What are the consequences of girls’ failure in Mathematics at the
secondary school level?

Activity

Look at your research problem and the objectives and convert them into
research questions. Compare your questions with the example we have
given.

Hypotheses: The research proposal should contain a clear set of research

hypotheses that are proposed to be tested. Hypotheses are educational or
intelligent guesses about possible solutions or explanations to the problem.
A hypothesis is a proposition about the solution to a problem, the
relationship between two or more variables or the nature of some
phenomena. They are based on the research objectives. A hypothesis may
be directional or non-directional Verma and Beard (1981) elaborately define
a hypothesis as a: A tentative proposition, which is subject to verification
through subsequent investigation.

In many cases, hypotheses are hunches that the researcher has about the
existence of relationship between the variables in the study
[Mwiria & Wamahiu 1995].

Usually about 4 to 6 hypotheses are quite adequate for a study (Borg and
Gall, 1984).
Both the research working hypothesis and null hypothesis can be tested
statistically.

How to state a hypothesis

Once you have identified a research problem, you then formulate plausible
solutions to the problem. Using your experience, intuition and consultations,
then go through a variety of questions to come up with guiding hypotheses
and techniques for verifying them.
For example:

 Is the hypothesis testable?

 Why is the hypothesis valid?
 To whom is the problem relevant?
 Will the results solve the problem?
 How much will it cost in terms of time and money to the study?
 What are the likely outcomes and impact?
 What are the constraints to carrying out the study?
 Are there alternative solutions to the problem?
(Keya, and Makau, 1989)

Many researchers experience problems in stating the hypotheses and the

problem at hand. Yet it is extremely important to state the problem,
hypotheses, themes, or arguments in the clearest terms for readers to
follow the thrust of the argument.

Two examples of hypotheses are used, the directional hypotheses and the
null hypotheses. Directional hypothesis state that “a relationship exists
between the variables while a null hypothesis state that; no relationship
exists between the variables or there is no difference between the
experimental treatments.
Directional hypothesis

Examples of directional hypotheses

 There is a positive and significant relationship between teaching style

and girls’ performance in Mathematics in Secondary school.
 There is a positive relationship between standard eight (8) pupils’
attitudes towards science education and the level of achievement in
science by the pupils in Kenya.

You can now easily state a directional hypothesis for your research
problem.

Null hypotheses

Examples of null hypotheses

 There is no relationship between teaching style and girls’ poor

performance in Mathematics in secondary school.
  There is no significant difference between achievement of class one
(1) pupils with pre-school education and those without pre-school
education.

Note that each hypothesis implicitly states the research problem since it
gives the lines of investigation and the variables to be studied.

Qualities of a good hypothesis

Assess your hypotheses by looking for the following: A hypothesis should

 State the relationship between two or more variables.

 Be reasonable and consistent with the existing body of knowledge.
 Be testable and verifiable.
 Be as clear and brief as possible.

However, whether directional or null hypotheses are stated, the differences

or relationships guessed refer to population differences not sample
differences. There are no hard and fast rules regarding when a researcher
should use hypotheses, research questions or objectives. The choice
depends on the academic disciplines and upon the nature of the study or
problem.

Significance of the study: What do you imagine would go into this

component? Some researchers refer to this subtopic as rationale or
justification of the study. The words may be used synonymously to outline
the reasons and importance for conducting the study.
 You should be fully convinced about the usefulness of the study
before you begin.
 You should only investigate a research problem if it demonstrates
value to the community school or country in general in terms of
providing a solution to a particular problem.
 A research problem is also significant if its findings can contribute to
the advancement of knowledge and theory or verification of theory.
 The results of the study should also be useful to professionals,
planners, practitioners or the lay public.
 You should highlight what may be lost if the study is note done
immediately. This will further strengthen the case for the study.

Keep in mind the questions that you should consider in writing the rationale
for carrying out the study. Suggested questions are:

(i) Why do you think the study is important?

(ii) What is the study going to contribute to the extension and
refining of existing knowledge both theoretically and practically?
(iii) What contribution will the study make to the improvement of the
related situation?
(iv) What gaps in knowledge will the study address?
(v) Is the study worth it?
(vi) How will the results be used?

We will now conclude by stating that the researcher should explain why the
study is meaningful, viable and worth spending time and other resources
on. The practical significance can, for example, be described to point out
issues such as who really needs the study and to whom the findings are
likely to be useful.

The justification or rationale or significance must be strong enough to

warrant the use of time, energy and money in carrying out the research.

Did you also realize that whether the researcher uses

 Significance
 Rationale or
 Justification of the Study;
depends mainly upon his choice and type of study and the target population
 Activity

Think of your research topic and give a justification for the study. Identify who will
benefit from the results and briefly explain how.

Limitations and assumptions of the study: Limitations refer to constraints both

theoretical and practical, that the researcher has little or no control over.
Limitations are an aspect of the study that the researcher knows may negatively
affect the results or generality but over which he has no control.

Activity

Explain why stating limitations are important in a research study.

We came up with the following reasons:

 They assist the researcher to avoid

- Pitfalls
- Over expectations
- Under estimations
- Frustrations in the course of the research project
 They show the scope of the study so as to enable an enthusiastic reader
make tenable generalizations of the findings.
 They give the necessary precautions during data interpretation and
generalization of the results.

Compare these reasons with the ones you gave in the Activity. Indeed, all of them
help to explain why you need to state limitations of the study. How about looking at
a few examples of the limitations?
 Financial
 Design of instruments
 Language use in questionnaires
 Sample size due to inadequate time, information funds etcetera.
 Length of the study
 Data collection procedures.

When visualizing your study topic verses these limitations, what is likely to
affect your findings? Give reasons why and explain how.
You need to be very honest in stating the limitations so that readers can make
intelligent deductions from the results. Never hesitate to state a limitation for there
is no perfect study that lacks limitations.

Assumptions of the study: You have been making some assumptions in previous
activities. Here we indicate what assumptions are:

 They are statements about what the researcher takes or believes to be true
but cannot verify.
 The researcher makes assumptions concerning the conditions or important
factors affecting the study.
 They are unique under the conditions, which the study is carried out.

Kathuri and Pal (1993:77) say that there is a multiplicity of variables in any research
and so only a few variables are selected to be included in the study while the rest
are controlled. The researcher may be aware of other variables, which can neither
be included in the research nor be controlled. These could be stated as
assumptions if the researcher is convinced that they may not influence the
relationship of the variables selected for the study.

Why and how you state assumptions

Stating assumptions will help you to justify the study and consequently the findings.
The results should be interpreted in the light of the stated underlying assumptions.
You could either agree or disagree with the assumptions. The assumptions may
either be convincing or not this will influence the acceptability of the findings.

Examples of assumptions/when given a research topic

Topic: Poor performance of girls in Mathematics in secondary schools.

Assumptions:
 All mathematics teachers are trained and qualified.
 Mathematics exercises are given regularly to the students.
 Girls have an interest in Mathematics

You can now state your assumptions based on your research problem. Keep in mind
that even though assumptions are not a subject of investigation, they should be
clearly stated in the proposal.

Definition of terms: It is worth mentioning that the researcher should define

terminologies or concepts to be used in the context of the study. This will give an
understanding of the sense in which the terms have been used.

Operationally define the dependent and independent variables, stating how the
variables will be measured in your study. For example, poor performance can be
defined as achievement below 50% out of 100% or being unable to calculate a
given number of sums in an examination.
Literature review
It would be of interest to note that: “Research starts in the library and ends in the
library.”

What is literature review?

Visualize the term review and list all the words that cross your mind. According to
Webster’s Advanced Learners’ Dictionary (1980) literature review means:

 See again
 Examine or study again
 To re-examine judicially
 To look back
 To take a retrospective view of
 To examine critically or deliberately
 To give a critical evaluation of.

Thus, in the context of research, literature review means:

 Locating literature in a variety of sources,

 Reading it carefully and thoroughly,
 Evaluating the content
 Breaking it down into themes
 Organizing it along the themes of the study.

In conclusion, the literature review is a systematic and critical analysis of existing

literature relevant to the current research topic. It involves reading an appropriate
proportion of the extensive literature that is available. It is basically a method of
acquiring information.

Purposes of literature review

The literature study serves several purposes in research. You will be able to do one
or more of the following:

 Define and limit the research problem (delineate the research problem).
 Seek new approaches and recommendations for doing research and avoid
sterile approaches.
 Gain understanding and insights into other methods of doing research and
the trends that have occurred.
 Develop a clear research design. The researcher will be able to identify
strengths and limitations of research methods used by others, in order to
adopt or improve on them in his/her own research.
 Sharpen and deepen the theoretical framework of the study
 Share with the readers the results of other studies that are closely related to
the study being reported.
  Relates a study to a larger, ongoing dialogue in the literature about a topic,
filling in gaps and extending prior studies so that the researcher will be able
to add to existing knowledge and introduce new ideas and perspectives.
 Clarify the relationship between the proposed study and previous work on the
topic, this gives the researcher an idea of what has already been done. It
also reveals the latest development in the area of study.
 Identify variables that must be considered in the research.
 Avoid unnecessary replication. You should conduct a thorough literature
study to be able to select a problem that has not been exhausted by other
research studies. However, deliberate replication of a study for verification or
challenge is acceptable.

Literature in any field forms the foundation upon which all future research must be
built. It helps avoid naivety and minimizes duplication of identical work already
conducted and accomplished by other researchers. Indeed, all these reasons are
helpful to a researcher. But, did you know that “Research’ without theory is blind,
and theory without practical focus is Empty”. Keep in mind that you should make
every effort to complete a thorough review before starting the research. This is
because the insights and knowledge you have gained through the review almost
inevitably lead to a better-designed project and greatly improve the chances of
obtaining important and significant results.

Keya and Makau (1989) came up with these reasons for literature search as follows;
that literature review is a continuous process that cuts across all stages of the
research process in a dynamic way. As the researcher argues her/his case, she/he
shows how the study will enlarge modify, depart from or compliment existing
knowledge. Thus, the literature review helps to make the problem apparent when
done comprehensively and critically.

To conclude the review of literature is the very first step in proposal writing and
must be carried out well. A good literature review saves time later in the process of
conducting research and forms the framework within which the research findings
are to be interpreted. It demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with the existing
body of knowledge which in turn increases the readers’ confidence in the
researcher’s professional ability. You can also source problems for further research
from the suggestions and recommendations made by previous researchers as you
review the literature.

How to organize the literature review section

Some suggestions include:

 You need to be clear on the headings and sub-headings of the whole study,
which then become the lines upon which the literature review will be
organized.
 It involves locating, reading and evaluating reports of research and those of
casual observation and opinion that are related to the individual planned
research project.
  A short introductory paragraph should be included at the beginning of the
literature review section. You should then tie up the existing literature with
objectives of the study – Finally, you should summarize main ideas and issues
of the literature review towards the end of the section.

Sources of information in locating and using educational research

Activity

List down some of the sources of information you would use to locate literature for
your study. Compare your answer with the ones outlined here below.

There are three major sources of information namely preliminary, primary and
secondary.

Preliminary sources: these are used to locate books, articles and other educational
documents related to the research problem. Most preliminary sources are indexes,
which give the author, title and place of publication.

Primary Sources: these are the original research and writings of researchers. They
include research articles in journals, abstracts, research reports, and scholarly
books. Most primary sources are journals and they contain more up-to-date
information than secondary sources.

An individual who actually observed or witnessed an occurrence could also describe

it directly. More examples of primary sources are:

- Development plans
- District annual reports
- Court-case judgments

Secondary sources: these are publications written by an author who was not a
direct observer or participant in the events described; but is reporting on research
conducted by someone else. Examples are:

- Review papers
- Text books
- Encyclopaedias
- Summaries
- Citations of other works
- Journal articles
These sources can be used to track down references to primary sources. You need
to develop a systematic approach to literature study from the very beginning.

 Be familiar with all the library facilities.

  Consult subject abstracts [which provide a summary of articles]
reviews, indexes [which list the bibliographical details of articles by
subject]
 Bibliographies
 Library catalogues, which come in various formats (, for example, hard
copy, CD-ROM, on-line and microfiche).
 The Internet.

Ask the following questions when reviewing and selecting material:

i) Is the literature relevant to my study?
ii) Why am I including this study or reference?
iii) How will the source contribute to my study?
iv) Is it a primary source? If not, how can I access the primary sources?
v) Is the source reliable?
vi) Is the source up-to-date?

It is essential to begin with a clear idea of your research topic. A literature study
should be purposeful and logical to avoid time wasting by wading through irrelevant
literature.

 Keep an accurate and up-to-date list of all the sources you consult.
 Keep a record of where you found the material. You can use a card as
illustrated herein:
Author, year, title, publisher, Town, page, location in the
library. Some key words describing the nature and content of the
source.

You could use a computer and develop your own system. Adopt a system to
organize your material, for example, classifying material according to topics and or
the chapters of your thesis. Keep a separate Box File for each chapter in which you
place the material that pertains to specific chapters.

Literature review is an ongoing process that requires a great deal of:

- Self discipline
- Perseverance
- Persistence
You, therefore, need to remain focused and to use your time expediently and
efficiently.

 Include only the necessary and relevant information.

 Avoid repetition of what has already been written
 Be open and challenge even the works of famous theorists (thus, adapting a
constructive critical approach)
 Do not report everything you now know. Be selective and include only
essential and valuable sources.
 Keep focused on your research problem avoiding time wasting on emerging
issues.

To conclude, the key to completion of a research study is:

- Commitment
 - Perseverance
- Consistent handwork

A lot more is given by Mugenda and Mugenda (1999) who have given some
examples of sources of information (p.23) as:

 Scholarly journals
 Internet websites
 Theses dissertations
 Government documents
 Conference research papers
 Books
 References given at the back of the book
 International indices
 Abstracts
 Periodicals like magazines local dailies or journals published periodically

In brief, the preliminary sources are used to locate appropriate primary and
secondary sources. While secondary sources give a quick overview of research
related to the problem detailed in depth.

The eight (8) steps in reviewing educational literature

 Define the problem.

 Review secondary sources.
 Select the most appropriate preliminary sources.
 Translate the problem statement into key words.
 Search the preliminary sources.
 Read primary sources: Make the cards.
 Organize the notes.
 Write the report.

Activity

1. Choose a topic of interest and write a three-page literature review based on this
8-step model.
2. Answer the following Review Questions:
 Discuss the significance of literature review
 Describe how a researcher can draw tentative hypotheses from a
review of literature.
 List four indicators of a good literature review.
Research design and methodology
The third section of the research proposal explains the research design to be used
in the study as well as methods of collecting and analyzing data.

Activity
Find out the meaning of a research design in Section 2 and determine which design
you will use in your study. Explain why you consider it to be relevant.

Research design: This represents the first section of chapter three in your
proposal. Here, you need to provide the following information:

 State the research design you intend to use.

 Explain its relevance to the proposed study.
 Describe the type of research to be used together with it e.g. descriptive
research.

Target population
In this section, you need to provide the following information.

 Describe the population characteristics

 Describe the location of the population
 Explain why you consider the population to be relevant to the study.
 Provide an estimate of the population size and its major components.

Sample design and procedures

In this section, you need to explain the following:

 A suitable sampling method for the study E. g stratified random sampling

(see section 7)
 Relevance of the method to your study.
 An adequate sample size E. g 25% of populations’ size.
 Sample components.
 Description of sampling procedures.
Data collection methods
This section should include:
 A description of data collection techniques , for example,
questionnaires, interviews, etcetera
 Type of instruments stated E. g structured, semi- structured or
unstructured.
 Relevance of the instruments to the study.

Data collection procedures

Here, you need to describe how you will practically prepare for data collection
instruments, actual fieldwork activities and data processing.
It is important to emphasize how the instruments will be validated, that is,
through a pilot study.

Data analysis procedures

In this section, you will explain the following:
 Type of data expected ,that is, quantitative or qualitative data
 Methods to be used in the analysis in terms of research questions and
hypothesis.
Conclusion
A research proposal is an important guide to a research study. You must have a
research plan before you implement the study. This will help you to develop your
study in a more efficient and economical manner. You will also give others an
opportunity to evaluate your proposed study before implementing it. Your research
supervisors will play a significant role in directing you. You will also be able to
communicate your intentions to conduct a specified study in a specified area to
avoid duplication by other researchers.

Suggested further reading

1. Study Guide 2: MEDEM2-R Research Methodology. Educational Management

Edited by Hoberg, SM Pretoria UNISA. 1999.
2. Mwiria, K; and Wamahiu, P.S. (1995). Issues in Educational Research in Africa.
Nairobi. EAEP.
3. Mugenda, O. M., and Mugenda, A.G.(1999). Research Methods. Quantitative and
Qualitative Approaches. Nairobi. Acts.
4. Kathura, N. J; and Pals, D. A. (1993): Introduction to Educational Research.
Nakuru, Egerton. Educational Media Centre.
5. Keya, S.O; Makau, [Link], etal. (1989). Guidelines for the Formulation of Research
project proposals. NCST and IDRC. Oxford University press.
Introduction
In this chapter, we explain the importance of research data, the various types of
data, the major instruments used for data collection and the measurements scales.

Data collection is an important part of all research endeavours, because the

conclusions of the study are based on what the data reveal? As a result, you should
be able to do the following:

TOPICS

 Importance of research data

 Types of data
 Instruments and methods of data collection
 Types of measurement scales.
 Section conclusion

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

This section is intended to enable you to:

 Explain the importance of research data

 Discuss the various types of data
 Discuss the instruments for data collection and
 Explain types of measurements scales
Importance of research data

You learnt about sampling designs in Section Five. Your work is not over yet if you
are writing a research proposal. You are yet to develop data collection tools. But
before you describe how you are going to collect the necessary information (data),
we need to find out of what use data is in research. Why is the academic institution
keen on you as a student of research, collecting data based on your research study?

Importance of research data

We realized that this subtopic is subsumed in the entire research planning. No

researcher has focused on the significance of data in research yet the whole
essence in research is to collect data. We decided to ask our students who
undertake research projects at diploma level and they came up with brilliant ideas
as follows:

 Research data helps the researcher to have a full picture of the problem at
hand.
 The researcher can establish the trend, the impact and the implications if no
intervention is made.
 The researcher can make deductions based on data analysis.
 Without research data, we cannot proceed with further research since we
cannot tell whether or not our initial perception of the situation was true or
not.
 We would not talk of research if there were no data, thus, the core of any
research study is to collect data, which is analyzed followed by conclusions
and recommendations.
 Research data acts as supportive empirical evidence to our hypothesis
hence; theory can be developed, modified or refuted.

We believe this gives you an insight into the importance of data and now you can
add what seems to be left out. This will also motivate you to develop your own
study so that you contribute towards the improvement of education in your country.

Types of data
Previously, we defined data as all the information a researcher gathers for his study.
We believe, you identified a research topic while working though Section 2 [Proposal
writing], and you are at par with the text as we progress. It is interesting to note
that we have different types of data, and you need to make an important decision
during the planning phase of your investigation, about what kind(s) of data you
intend to collect. Both primary and secondary data are used in one study. Any of
the data can be obtained in quantitative or qualitative form.

There are basically two types of data: primary data and secondary data.

Primary data
Primary data refers to the information a researcher obtains for the first time from
the field, that is, from the subjects in the sample specifically for the purpose at
hand.

For example, consider students’ responses to questionnaire items based on their

satisfaction with leadership style.

The values may be obtained from the operational definitions of the variables (that
is, leadership style) in the study to generate data. Leadership style may be
operationalised by reference to the following indicators: communication, authority,
power, listening, respect, role model, availability, transparency and many others. If
several of these indicators are present, then we can imply that the leadership style
is effective / satisfactory. The values derived from operational definitions are
usually presented in the form of frequency distributions. Other sources of primary
data are interviews, observation methods and content analysis.

Secondary data

On the other hand, secondary data refers to the information the researcher obtains
from books and research articles. Data may also be classified as quantitative or
qualitative depending on the nature and objectives of the study.

Instruments for data collection

The basis for obtaining useful research results is adequate, objective and reliable

data. You need appropriate well-defined tools to collect the required data.

Procedures for data collection

There are many methods of collecting data. A number of tools in social research can
be used for collecting data. This topic discusses some of them but again you should
consult other texts for details on each of the methods, as appropriate.

The questionnaire

This is a set of questions or items that is drawn to meet the objectives of the survey
and a research subject is expected to respond to. The questions must be relevant
to the goals of the study and to the individual respondent. The questionnaire may
consist of one or more sets of questions depending on the aspects of data to be
collected. Sets of questions may also be determined by the categories of
respondents.

Be sure on how answers will be analyzed before including an item in the

questionnaire.

- Questions should be clear and categorical.

- Subsequent follow-up, open-ended questions should be treated
separately.
The questionnaire can be administered orally as the researcher records the
responses to each item or the research subject may be left to respond to the items
independently. Items in the questionnaire may be closed-ended (structured) or
open-ended response type.

In open-ended (unstructured) type of items the individual has more freedom of

responding to the questions. They tend to be inconsistent in length and in content
across respondents. The items require less effort to construct since you do not
have to think and structure possible responses.

In closed-ended response type, (structured) there is consistency of responses

across respondents; because responses have to be objective since they are already
specified.

An example of a structured or closed ended question:

What is the most important factor in a stable marital relationship?
A. Understanding
B. Love
C. Respect
D. Care

An example of an open ended item is:

What made you decide to join the DEOL programme?

Types of questionnaire items

We have mentioned that there are several kinds of question and response methods
in questionnaires. They include, for example, closed questions multiple-choice
questions; rating scales and open-ended questions.

Activity

Differentiate between closed questions and open-ended questions.

Generally, closed questions are quick to complete and straight forward to code.
They do not discriminate on literacy levels of subjects because they prescribe the
range of responses from which the respondent may choose. They do not allow any
addition of information in terms of remarks or explanations. There is a risk that the
response categories may not be exhaustive and that there may be bias in them. On
the other hand, open-ended questions enable the respondents to write a free
response in their own terms, to explain and qualify their responses and avoid
limitations of pre-set categories of response. However, the responses are difficult to
code and to classify.
How to frame/design items in a questionnaire
Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2000) have the following guidelines.

a) Avoid leading questions, for example. Do you prefer tests based on facts
when you have to memorize or application of knowledge?
b) Avoid ambiguous language with all kinds of respondents.
c) Avoid complex questions.
d) Avoid irritating questions or instructions. For example: Have you ever
facilitated any workshop in twenty years of teaching?
e) Avoid questions that use negatives and double negatives. For example:
How strongly do you feel that no technical teacher should enrol on the
HDEM programme that has not completed at least five (5) years full-time
teaching?
f) Avoid too many open ended items on self-completion questionnaires

As one adheres to these guidelines, he has the following questionnaire items to

choose from:

(i) Closed questions: These can take several forms. An item that requires a ‘yes’ or
‘no’ response is called a dichotomous question. , for example, have you ever
been late for class? Do you prefer theory or practical lessons?

(ii) Multiple – choice questions: In these items the range of choices is designed to
capture the likely range of responses to given statements. For example: The
implementation of team-teaching is:
a) An extra burden on lecturers
b) Under use of manpower
c) A waste of time
d) Not appropriate for our college.

Note that in multiple-choice items, a statement is followed by a set of responses.

The categories must have no overlaps and be mutually exclusive (that is,
discrete). The possible range of responses has to be exhausted. The major
problem of questionnaires is that different respondents interpret the same words
differently.

(iii) Rank ordering: It enables respondents to indicate their degree of preference,

priority or intensity. A list of options is given from which respondents are
required to rank order: For example:

Please indicate your priorities by numbering the statements given to

show the order of your views.
1. Most important
2. Important
3. Undecided
4. Less important
5. Least important

The proposed implementation of DEOL at higher Diploma level might be

successful if the following factors are addressed:
 Staff development in DEOL
 Availability of appropriate resource materials Government support.
 The lecturers understand and agree with it.
 The VVOB project continues for another 3 years
 There is an increase in students’ motivation.
 There is approval by parents.
 Evaluation is conducted in a diversified manner.

Rankings are useful in indicating degrees of responses, thus, they are like rating
scales. When the list is too long the respondents might be overwhelmed. Try to
have at most five statements/ranks

iv) Rating scales: give degrees and intensity of response. There are various types of
rating scales. We will focus on the likert scales. You can read about the others
in (Cohen, et al (2000) p 253). A likert scale provides a range of responses to a
given question or statement, for example:

 How important do you consider industrial attachment to be for technical

education students?
1 = not at all 3 = a little

2 = very little 4 = a lot

 All students should have access to free higher education

1 = strongly disagree 3 = Undecided
2 = disagree 4 = Agree
5 = Strongly agree

A rating scale is an attractive and widely used instrument in research. The

categories should be discrete and exhaust the range of possible responses which
respondents may wish to give but, the problems of interpretation exist in that
one respondents ‘agree’ may be another’s ‘strongly agree’. Rating scales all the
same are particularly useful for soliciting information about attitudes,
perceptions and opinions of respondents?

v) Open-ended questions: these can be included in the sections of a questionnaire

that invite an honest, personal comment from the respondents in addition to
taking the multiple choice parts thus, leading to a semi-structured questionnaire.
The open ended question can be useful for a small scale research. An open-
ended question can capture the authenticity, richness, depth of response, and
honesty, which are the hallmark of qualitative data.
 Look at this example: The major characteristics of HDEM students for the DEOL
program are --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
OR

The reasons for unpopularity of Guidance and Counselling among college

students are ---------------------------------

Comparison of respondents is difficult and it is time consuming, with an

assumption that all respondents can equally express their thoughts and commits
them to paper.

Activity

With reference to the various examples given under each type of questionnaire
items, identify a research problem and design a questionnaire that you would use to
gather data.

Characteristics of a good questionnaire

How would you describe a good questionnaire? The suggestions given herein are
not exhaustive and we expect that you will be able to make additions as you
continue working through this manual. A questionnaire is good if:

 It deals with an important topic which entices the respondent to give

response
 It seeks only data which cannot be obtained from secondary sources
 It is as short as possible and only long enough to get the essential data.
 It is as comprehensive as necessary to capture all relevant and crucial
information.
 It is attractive in appearance, neatly arranged, and clearly printed.
 It has directions that are clear and complete. Each question deals with a
single idea and the wording is simple giving opportunity for easy, accurate
and unambiguous response.

Preparing and administering a questionnaire

Perhaps you already have an idea reflecting or the issues we have discussed so far
about questionnaires. You cannot get a ready-made questionnaire appropriate for
your study. You have to prepare it yourself.

In the preparation of a questionnaire keep in mind the frame you outlined. Secure
all the help you can in planning and constructing a questionnaire without suffering
from an assumption that you know how to ask questions. Asking questions that will
obtain the precise reliable data is no easy task. You will be amazed when
respondents interpret items differently from questions that you thought were
perfectly clear. As a teacher, you have always asked questions and hence this may
appear odd nevertheless, give it a thought.

 Obtain a through grasp of the study area and a clear understanding of the
objectives that you want the questionnaire to accomplish.
 Determine how you will analyze the information obtained from each item.
 Engage outsiders to read through your questionnaire because they are
generally more objective and can see flaws that you are unable to see.
Hence, there is need for a pilot study on a few colleagues, who are
reasonably competent to fill it out. This trial will help you realize the gaps
and defects that can be corrected in time.
 Questions must be worded clearly to appear important and meaningful to the
respondents.
 If the desired information is confidential in nature, then provide for
anonymous responses.

It is your responsibility to convince the respondent that the data will be held in strict
confidence and that the data will be used for no purpose other than research.
 Avoid negatively stated items, long winding questions and double-barrelled
items.
 Avoid leading (biased) questions, personal and sensitive items,
psychologically threatening questions and using difficult words.

Sequencing the items

Preparation of a questionnaire is incomplete without highlighting sequencing of
items. To some extent, the order depends on how the sample population will
respond to certain items, the purposes of the questionnaire, and the sensitivity of
the research and the overall balance of the questionnaire. Items should be
arranged in a logical sequence. Commence the questionnaire with non-threatening
questions that they can be readily answered. After which you can move to more
personalized questions Initial questions should be simple, have high interest value
and encourage participation. The respondent will have confidence as well as the
motivation to continue. Midway through, the questionnaire could contain difficult
questions; the last section should be of high interest in order to encourage
respondents to return the completed schedule. Here is an example of a common
sequence in most questionnaires.

The first items are focused on age, sex, occupation, educational level, years of
experience, professional qualification and so on. The mid section would have closed
questions through the use of multiple choice and rating scales. The statements or
questions will try to elicit responses that require attitudes, opinions, views and
perceptions. Then finally would be the last section, composed of more open-ended
questions that seek responses on opinions, views, attitudes and perceptions,
together with reasons for the responses given. The sequencing is from objective
facts to subjective attitudes and opinions through justifications, followed by
sensitive, personalized data. As you design the questionnaire, you have to
anticipate the sensitivity of the topics (age, income, religion, etc.) in terms of the
respondents, which has a wide socio-cultural dimension. The questionnaire has to
be viewed through the eyes of the respondent and yours. Another acceptable
sequence is arranging the questions according to themes. If you arrange the
questionnaire into content sub-section then you should introduce each section, to
help the respondent make sense of the questionnaire without wasting time. Do not
put important questions at the end of a long questionnaire because they might be
overlooked or answered in a hurry. Finally, each questionnaire should be given an
identification number (ID)

Pre-testing the questionnaire

What is pre-testing? Why would you need to pre-test your questionnaire? How do
you pre-test? Pre-testing is crucial to the success of questionnaires because the
wording is of great importance. Pre-testing refers to piloting or doing a trial.
Piloting has several advantages although basically it is done to increase the
reliability, validity and practicability of the questionnaire. Cohen, Manion & Morrison
(2000) and; Mugenda and Mugenda (1999) give the following as the reasons for pre-
testing questionnaires:

 To check on the clarity of the questionnaire items, instructions, and the

layout.
 To eliminate any ambiguous or difficult wording.
 To gain feedback on the type of question and its format
 To identify redundant questions with very little discriminations
 To identify commonly misunderstood or non-completed items.
 To gain feedback on the attractiveness and appearance of the questionnaire.
 To check the time taken to complete the questionnaire
 To check the length of the questionnaire, whether too difficult or too easy;
too threatening, too intrusive, too offensive.
 To consider and incorporate comments and suggestions made by
respondents during pre-testing that improves the questionnaire.
 Pre-testing reveals deficiencies in the questionnaire. For example, unclear
directions, insufficient space to write the response, cluttered questions and
wrong numbering can be revealed and corrected, to improve the
questionnaire.
 To try out the coding/classification system for data analysis. Researchers
should analyze the few questionnaires to see if the methods of analysis are
appropriate, especially when dealing with a large study and resources (time
and money) allow. The results could generate suggestions on how suitable
the proposed methods of analysis are.

Have you ever tried out something for yourself to see if it works or not?
What was it? What were the results? Feel free to write it down. What you did was
pre-test?

How to pre-test the questionnaire

Pre-testing should be carried out on a selected sample, which is similar to the actual
sample that the researcher plans to use in the study. DO NOT use subjects in the
actual sample in the pre-test. The number of subjects in the pre-test sample should
be small that is, between 1% and 10% depending on the sample size. For example,
consider a study on performance of pupils in Kiswahili KCPE in Nairobi Province.
The researcher will identify the sample schools then use those schools left out of
the sample for pre-testing. The subjects should be encouraged to make comments
and suggestions concerning instruction, clarity of items and relevance.

Activity

Imagine you are to conduct your own pilot study and describe the pre-testing
procedures and the results.

Administration of questionnaires
Suppose you were to conduct a research study, how would you ensure that your
questionnaires reach the subjects? There are three main methods of administering
questionnaires.

(a) Self administered questionnaires

In this method, the respondents are asked to complete the questionnaires
themselves. The questionnaires can be posted or, that is, hand-delivered. Have
you ever filled any questionnaire?

(b) Researcher administered questionnaires

This is where the researcher uses the questionnaire to interview the
respondents. The researcher reads the items and the categories to the subjects
and then writes down the responses. It may happen due to low educational level
of the subjects, and inability to understand and interpret the items.

(c) The Internet

This is mostly used in developed countries to collect data. The sample group for
the research receives and responds to the questionnaires through their web
sites/home pages and through their e-mail accounts. In developing countries
like Kenya, this technology is currently available to a few individuals and
institutions. KTTC is one of the few through the VVOB support. It is costly to
conduct research on the Internet.

We wish to bring to your attention that there is so much written about

questionnaires. You will have to read more on your own from the list of books given
under further reading. You will discover a lot of material, which will be helpful to
you.
During your intensive study, we recommend that you find out the merits and
demerits of questionnaires. They are numerous and are covered in every Research
Methods Textbook

Interviews

Have you ever attended an interview?

Share with us your experience at the interview?
How did you feel during and after the interview?
What would you say an interview is?

Most people are familiar with the word interview but they are not able to precisely
say what it means. An interview is an oral administration of a questionnaire or an
interview schedule that guides the interviewing process. It is conducted face to
face or by telephone. For you to obtain accurate information through interviews,
you need to obtain the maximum cooperation from respondents. Therefore, you
must establish rapport with the respondent prior to conducting the interview.
Interviewing is one of the older and most widely used methods or approaches used
in survey research for collecting data in social science. To ensure that the
interviewing is done systematically, consistently and as objectively as possible, the
tool normally used is the interviewing schedule (Coleman and Briggs, 2002).

The interviewer asks questions tailored to the achievement of the study objectives.
Some interviews may be structured and some can be unstructured, depending on
the focus of the study. An interview provides the option of elaborating or clarifying
items after they are presented to the respondent.

The strengths and limitations of interviews

The strengths of an interview are in its flexibility, ensuring a high rate of response
control of the interview situation. It allows recording of spontaneous and unintended
responses and one can prevail upon the respondent to complete all questions.
However, interviews can be expensive, reach only a few cases, they are time-
consuming, inconvenient to the respondents, the researcher may be biased and
with many interviewers, standardization of the stimuli is difficult. Respondents may
not give the information recorded because the researcher merely confirms
prejudice.

During the interview, data can be recorded using a tape recorder or a video
recorder. The respondent should be well informed to avoid any suspicions of hidden
motives in data collection.
 How would you react if the interviewer were to record your exchange?

Avoid extensive writing during an interview to allow yourself more time and
attention to the respondent.

Types of biases

In research, the researcher should be aware of the different types of biases that
could influence the data collected. The biases include the following:

i. Interview bias

This can arise out of the interviewer’s reaction to sex, social class, age or even
dress. Questions may also be worded so as to lead the respondent towards the
expression of certain beliefs by the researcher. For example the following questions
are biased:
Is there too much autocracy in this institution?
Are men more respected than women in this area?

ii. Sample bias

This is where a researcher interviews a few people at say, a market place or a

dispensary and concludes about a few parents understanding much about the
education of their children.

Interviews may be less standardized due to involvement of many hired interviewers.

Some questions will not be asked in a standardized way while some interviewers
may fake answers when subjects are uncooperative or for other reasons.

Here are some suggestions for using an interviewing schedule [Kathuri and Pals
1993]

 The interviewer should be well aware of the problem or variables under

investigation.
 The questions on the interview schedule should be clear to both the
interviewer and the interviewee
 Avoid excessive informality or being emotionally involved during the
interview
 Avoid any unrealistic argument as much as possible
 When more than one interviewer is used, they should be trained to enhance
consistency.
 Avoid ambiguity by specifically and clearly stating the items or questions.
 DO NOT embarrass or offend the respondent, handle any such questions with
care.
 Activity

Suppose you have been asked to carry out an investigation into the quality of the
Higher Diploma in Educational Management.
a) Identify your target group
b) Identify four key questions that you would include in your interview schedule

Did you come up with items more or less similar to the one listed here below?

a) How relevant is the HDEM curriculum to the work of an Educational

Manager?
b) What is the relationship between theory and practice?
c) How effectively is the course being handled?
d) What would you say about the overall quality of the HDEM programme?

Our target group for interviewing is the students of HDEM and the lecturers. Keep
on asking yourself this question: What am I trying to find out? It will help to focus
you on the main purpose of the study so that you come up with relevant items and
also determine the right target and accessible populations.

Observation

Observation is a tool for gathering data. It is used in the collection of data and it is
often confused with the use of questionnaires.
What are you observing right now? What have you seen? Look at the table or the
environment where you are as you work through this topic, note down all the things
you have observed. How is observation different from questionnaires or interviews?
We observed the following items in our working office as we did the writing of this
manual,

Table 6.1: Observation form

Piles of books
Heaps of exam scripts
Cartons of manila papers
Racks of pens
Dusty seats and tables
Worn out Carpet
Cobwebs on the ceiling (roof)
Papers stuck on the wall

Table 6.1 can be referred to as an observation form, schedule or checklist

depending on how it is designed and what is being observed.

We can, therefore, say that observation is a procedure by which the researcher (an
observer) notes and records what is occurring in some situation. For example,
observing the behaviour pattern of students and staff of KTTC during sports day or
observing interaction pattern of teachers during recess/tea break, unlike self-
reports, observation minimizes or eliminates the bias that may result from people
offering information about themselves. Observation as a data gathering tool should
be as objective and systematic as possible. It is necessary to have an observation
schedule which specifies the behaviour to be observed. To have uniform data,
observe each behaviour or episode of behaviour for a specified period. Record
behaviour as it occurs and record the situation in which the behaviour is
demonstrated. Obviously, the presence and behaviour of the researcher will
influence the respondent’s behaviour.

The researcher should wait until the respondent gets familiar with him as part of the
environment. Like in questionnaires and interviews, research assistants should be
trained, if any is used in data collection to ensure consistency in observing and
recording.

At times, an observation checklist may be used to record what the researcher

observes during data collection.

Activity

Think of a situation/event at your work place or in your village. Identify and define
the behaviour you will observe at a given interval, for example, every two minutes
(2 minutes). List them in an observation form similar to Table 6.2 presented here
below:

Table 6.2: Observation From

Behaviour Occurrence
 -------------------------------------------------------------
 -------------------------------------------------------------
 -------------------------------------------------------------
 ------------------------------------------------------------
 ------------------------------------------------------------
 ------------------------------------------------------------

Well done! You have developed an observation checklist. You can now use it to
check the behaviour as they occur during your data collection. The accuracy of the
study is enhanced because you have adequate time to think about what is occurring
as opposed to how to record the behaviour.

Remember that we do not only observe behaviour, but we also observe, cover and
record items such as books, equipments and facilities in an institution, evaluating
their state and relevance. Such an observation form must be tested in similar
situations to those expected during the data collection to help correct only mistakes
that may be detected.
Other types of observations are also described. They are participant observation
and experimental observation.

Participant observation

This method requires the investigator to be involved in the respondents’ activities in

order to gain insight and be able to observe certain factors required for the
investigation. For example, if you wish to find out about students’ behaviour
patterns after classes, then you could decide to live among them for a specified
period of time in order to gather the data.

Experimental observation

Activity
Recall your science lessons in high school particularly in the Biology and Chemistry
lessons. Choose one experiment that caught your attention and describe what you
observed.

You must have a number of experiments rushing through your mind and you are
wondering which one to describe. We can say that an experimental observation
involves the manipulation of certain factors and variables in the environment until
an observable effect is produced. Experimental observation is a method mostly
applied in the physical and natural sciences, in laboratory situations. Such
experiments are also quite common in fields such as psychology, law, sociology,
agriculture and history.

Tests

What is a test? Are you wondering how a test can be a tool for collecting research
data? A test can broadly be defined as any instrument for assessing individual
differences along a specified dimension of behaviour. It is an instrument used for
data collection through measurement, which is objective and is quantifiable. There
are variety of test types, such as written and oral, norm-referenced, domain-
referenced, criterion-referenced, individual and group. However, most tests used in
behavioural sciences are norm-referenced, that is, they have scores that indicate
how an individual’s performance compares with that of others.

If you intend to use a test as a measuring instrument, then it should be

standardized to make it both reliable and valid in relation to what it is supposed to
measure.
Of course, teachers use tests all the time, but classroom tests are not standardized
tests, that is why they are full of errors and cannot be used in replicating studies.
For a test to be an appropriate and effective tool it should:

 be valid in all ways, that is, content, predictive, etcetera. depending on the
purpose of the test;
 be closely relevant to the purpose and objectives of the research;
 be reliable
 be clearly and correctly written;
 have questions precisely stated
 have complete and clear directors.

Besides these, the environment may influence the test results. Both social and
psychological environments should be appropriate for the best test performance.

You may need to know what the standardized test is. It is a test that has
consistency and uniform procedures for administering, scoring and interpreting the
behaviour of subjects (Mugenda and Mugenda, 1999). Standardized tests are
available in education, psychology and sociology. Have you ever heard about GRE,
GMAT or TOEFEL? These are standardized tests usually taken by foreign students
wishing to pursue further studies in American Universities.

Activity

With all information you have gone through, list down other methods/tools of data
collection.

Other methods of data collection

Sometimes information is obtained from documentary sources such as:

 diaries
 published statistical bulletins
 medical records
 remote sensing
 textbooks in libraries
 slides and tapes.
 computer and the internet.
Conclusion
In this section, you have observed various techniques of data collection. This stage
is crucial in your study because it provides the evidence on which your findings and
conclusions will be based. It is, therefore, important to ensure that you collect data
that is adequate, reliable, valid and current. These are the qualities of good data
and they will enrich your findings.

Suggested further reading

1. Mugenda, O. M. and Mugenda, A.G. (1999)

Research Methods. Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches Nairobi.
ACTS.
2. Fraenkel, J. R. and Wallen, N.E. (2000)
How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. 4 th ed. Boston.
McGraw Hill.
3. Coleman, M. and Briggs, A.R (2002)
Research Methods in Educational leadership and Management. London
Sage

What is sampling?

Sampling is a procedure used in the selection of sample units from the population.
A sample represents a small section of the population that has been selected for
observation and analysis. The purpose of sampling is to study a population.

A population represents all cases of people, objects or events that posses certain
common characteristics relevant to the purpose of a study. The target population
for a research study depends on what kind of information is required and who can
provide it. For example, a study on “effects of Management styles on school
performance in Examinations” would target a population of:

 Head teachers
 Deputy head teachers
 Assistant teachers
 Students
  Sub – ordinate staff.

The various categories of people mentioned here have certain common

characteristics. They are all members of the school environment where the various
management styles’ prevail. Also, their behaviour or actins contribute directly or
indirectly to school performance.

Activity

Describe the target population for the following research study: Determinants of
Effective Financial Management Practices in Secondary schools in Nairobi.

The target population represents the universe in which the results of the study are
generalized. This implies that the sample measures (or statistics) are used to
interpret or estimate the population parameters (or characteristics).

The purpose of sampling is to study some population by selecting a representative

sample. In this case: “A sample is a set of cases drawn from the specified
population for purposes of generalizing or making inferences about that population”
(Kohout, 1974:247). Look at Figure 7.1 here below which illustrates a sample
population.

Criteria for a good sample

a) Adequacy of the sample size

The sample size should be large enough to adequately represent the true
population characteristics. The smaller the sample size the greater the sampling
error and vice versa.

b) Reliability of the sample

The selected sample should be reliable to minimize errors or bias in interpretation

of research results.

c) Independence of sample units

The sample units should be independent of each other. This means that the
selection of one population unit should not influence the selection of another unit.
Each population unit should be given equal chance of being drawn for the sample.

d) Homogeneity of sample units

The sample units should be homogeneous. This is to say that they must posses’
similar characteristics which reflect the true population characteristics.
Reasons for sampling

What are the advantages if using a sample in a research study?


a) Cost factor

Sampling reduces the costs of the study, what would otherwise be high if the whole
population is used.

b) Time factor

Less time is spent in the study with a sample than that a total population. This
enables the researcher to meet specific time for research projects.

c) Accuracy

Handling fewer population cases enables the researcher to conduct a through

evaluation and analysis of data. This improves reliability of results.

d) Efficiency

It is possible to carry our several studies simultaneously in a single population when

samples are used. This increases efficiency in allocation of research resources.

Sampling methods

Sampling methods can be classified into two major categories, namely:

a) Random/ Probability sampling methods

b) Non – Random (Non – Probability) sampling methods.

Random sampling: Refers to a procedure for selecting cases from a population in

such a way that every member of the population has an equal chance of being
drawn for the sample.

Non – random sampling: Refers to a procedure for selecting cases from a

population in such a way that members of the population have an unequal chance
of being drawn for the sample.

The differences between the two methods are summarized in Table 7.1.

Table 7.1: The differences between random sampling and non-random sampling
methods
NON – RANDOM SAMPLING
RANDOM SAMPLING METHODS METHODS
a) Selection is based on chance or a) Selection is judgmental or
probability purposive
b) Generates an accurate sample b) Generates a biased sample
c) Mainly used in quantitative c) Mainly used in qualitative
research research

Random methods of sampling

Random sampling techniques include:
1. Simple random sampling
2. Systematic random sampling
3. Stratified random sampling
4. Cluster or area sampling.
Table 7.2 summaries the contexts in which one can use each of the methods of
sampling

Table 7.2: How and when to use random sampling methods in research

Sampling When Used Selection Procedure

Method
1. Simple  Target population 1. The population is defined, that is,
random must be (homogeneous).
Samplin Homogeneous. 2. A sampling frame is obtained.
g  Population size is 3. An adequate sample size is the
known determined.
 A sampling frame 4. Population size is determined
is available.
5. Sample units are selected using
 Population is
random numbers or the lottery
relatively small.
technique.

2. Systemati  Target population 1. Define the target population

c Random is Homogeneous. 2. Obtain a suitable sample.
Sampling.  Population size is 3. Determine the population size.
known. 4. Determine an adequate sample
 Sampling frame is size.
available.
5. Divide the population into a
 Population size is
number of equal – interval, where
large.
each Interval = Population size
over Sample size.
6. Select the first unit from the first
interval at random, and note its
position in the interval ( that is, r th
units from the rest of the
intervals).
3. Stratified  The target 1. Define the target population.
Random population is 2. Obtain a sampling frame.
Sampling. heterogeneous 3. Determine the population size.
 Population size is 4. Divide the population into logical
known. components or strata.
  Sampling frame is 5. Determine the number of units in
available. each stratum.
6. Select the sample units each
stratum at random and ensure
that the sample components
reflect the population strata,
proportionately.

4. Cluster or  Population size is 1. Define the target population.

Area known. 2. Determine the population size.
Sampling  Population is 3. Determine the sample size
distributed into required
wide geographic 4. Determine the number of logical
areas/locations. cluster in the population and the
 Population units size of the smallest cluster.
are grouped into
5. Select one or more clusters at
clusters.
random to represent the sample.

Methods of sampling are non – random / non – probability.

Non –random sampling techniques include:

 Quota sampling
 Chain sampling (snowball)
 Maximum variation sampling
 Critical case sampling
 Extreme/deviant sampling
 Typical case sampling
 Intensity sampling
 Criterion sampling
 Homogeneous sampling

When and for what purpose the non – random sampling methods used

Table 7.3 explains the contexts in which the non-random sampling methods are
used.

Table 7.3: Use of non-random sampling methods

Sampling Method Purpose and Use Selection Procedure

1. Quota Sampling Used to illustrate sub  Identify the population

(Stratified purposive groups and facilitate strata.
sampling) comparisons.  Estimate relative sizes of
- Used when the population strata.
population  Design a sample by
heterogeneous but the allocating quotas to the
 population size is not population strata by size or
known. importance to the study.

2. Chain sampling  Used to identify  The target population is

(snowball method) cases of interest defined.
from the people  A few population units are
who can identify identified.
others that are  A referral network system is
familiar with used to identify other sample
population cases units until an adequate
that are sample size is achieved.
information rich.

Activity
Identify a research topic and
a) Describe the kind of data you will need
b) Indicate the method of sampling you will use to collect the data

Conclusion
The reliability of the research results will depend on the careful choice of a relevant
sampling method. It is important to ensure that the researcher selects a sample
that fulfils the major criteria for a good sample.