Solution Manual + Answer Key

Solution Manual for Griffiths Introduction to Quantum Mechanics

2nd Edition by Griffiths

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Book Title: Griffiths Introduction to Quantum Mechanics

Edition: 2nd Edition

Author: Griffiths

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Contents
Preface 2

1 The Wave Function 3

2 Time-Independent Schrödinger Equation 14

3 Formalism 62

4 Quantum Mechanics in Three Dimensions 87

5 Identical Particles 132

6 Time-Independent Perturbation Theory 154

7 The Variational Principle 196

8 The WKB Approximation 219

9 Time-Dependent Perturbation Theory 236

10 The Adiabatic Approximation 254

11 Scattering 268

12 Afterword 282

Appendix Linear Algebra 283

2nd Edition – 1st Edition Problem Correlation Grid 299

2

Preface

These are my own solutions to the problems in Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, 2nd ed. I have made every
effort to insure that they are clear and correct, but errors are bound to occur, and for this I apologize in advance.
I would like to thank the many people who pointed out mistakes in the solution manual for the first edition,
and encourage anyone who finds defects in this one to alert me (griffith@[Link]). I’ll maintain a list of errata
on my web page ([Link] and incorporate corrections in the
manual itself from time to time. I also thank my students at Reed and at Smith for many useful suggestions,
and above all Neelaksh Sadhoo, who did most of the typesetting.
At the end of the manual there is a grid that correlates the problem numbers in the second edition with
those in the first edition.

David Griffiths

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CHAPTER 1. THE WAVE FUNCTION 3

Chapter 1

The Wave Function

Problem 1.1
(a)

j2 = 212 = 441.

1  2 1  2 

j 2  = j N (j) = (14 ) + (152 ) + 3(162 ) + 2(222 ) + 2(242 ) + 5(252 )
N 14
1 6434
= (196 + 225 + 768 + 968 + 1152 + 3125) = = 459.571.
14 14

j ∆j = j −
j
14 14 − 21 = −7
15 15 − 21 = −6
(b) 16 16 − 21 = −5
22 22 − 21 = 1
24 24 − 21 = 3
25 25 − 21 = 4

1  1  
σ2 = (∆j)2 N (j) = (−7)2 + (−6)2 + (−5)2 · 3 + (1)2 · 2 + (3)2 · 2 + (4)2 · 5
N 14
1 260
= (49 + 36 + 75 + 2 + 18 + 80) = = 18.571.
14 14

√
σ= 18.571 = 4.309.

(c)

j 2  −
j2 = 459.571 − 441 = 18.571. [Agrees with (b).]

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4 CHAPTER 1. THE WAVE FUNCTION

Problem 1.2
(a)
  h
h
1 1 2 5/2  h2

x2  = x2 √ dx = √ x  = .
0 2 hx 2 h 5 0 5

 2
h2 h 4 2 2h
σ =
x  −
x =
2 2
− 2
= h ⇒ σ = √ = 0.2981h.
5 3 45 3 5

(b)
 
x+
1 1 √ x+ 1 √ √
P =1− √ dx = 1 − √ (2 x) = 1 − √ x+ − x− .
x− 2 hx 2 h x− h

x+ ≡
x + σ = 0.3333h + 0.2981h = 0.6315h; x− ≡
x − σ = 0.3333h − 0.2981h = 0.0352h.

√ √
P =1− 0.6315 + 0.0352 = 0.393.

Problem 1.3
(a)
 ∞
Ae−λ(x−a) dx.
2
1= Let u ≡ x − a, du = dx, u : −∞ → ∞.
−∞

 ∞
π λ
e−λu du = A
2
1=A ⇒ A= .
−∞ λ π

(b)
 ∞  ∞
xe−λ(x−a) dx = A (u + a)e−λu du
2 2

x = A
−∞ −∞
∞  ∞  
−λu 2
−λu2 π
=A ue du + a e du = A 0 + a = a.
−∞ −∞ λ
 ∞
x2 e−λ(x−a) dx
2

x  = A
2
−∞
 ∞  ∞  ∞ 
2 −λu2 −λu2 2 −λu2
=A u e du + 2a ue du + a e du
−∞ −∞ −∞

1 π π 1
=A + 0 + a2 = a2 + .
2λ λ λ 2λ

1 1 1
σ 2 =
x2  −
x2 = a2 + − a2 = ; σ=√ .
2λ 2λ 2λ

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CHAPTER 1. THE WAVE FUNCTION 5

(c)

ρ(x)
A

a x

Problem 1.4
(a)
    a  b 
|A|2 a
|A|2 b
1 x3  1 (b − x)3 
1= 2 2
x dx + (b − x) dx = |A|
2 2
+ −
a 0 (b − a)
2
a a2 3 0 (b − a)2 3 
a

a b−a b 3
= |A|2 + = |A|2 ⇒ A = .
3 3 3 b

(b)
Ψ
A

a b x

(c) At x = a.

(d)
  
a
|A|2 a
a a P = 1 if b = a,

P = |Ψ|2 dx = x2 dx = |A|2 = .
0 a2 0 3 b P = 1/2 if b = 2a.

(e)
   a  b 
1 1

x = x|Ψ|2 dx = |A|2 2 x3 dx + x(b − x) 2
dx
a 0 (b − a)2 a
  4 a  b 
3 1 x  1 2x
2
x3 x4 
= + b − 2b +
b a2 4 0 (b − a)2 2 3 4 a
3  2 
= a (b − a)2 + 2b4 − 8b4 /3 + b4 − 2a2 b2 + 8a3 b/3 − a4
4b(b − a)2
 4 
3 b 2 3 1 2a + b
= −a b + a b =
2 2
(b3 − 3a2 b + 2a3 ) = .
4b(b − a)2 3 3 4(b − a)2 4

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6 CHAPTER 1. THE WAVE FUNCTION

Problem 1.5
(a)
   ∞
∞
−2λx e−2λx  |A|2 √
1= |Ψ| dx = 2|A|
2 2
e dx = 2|A| 2
= ; A= λ.
0 −2λ 0 λ

(b)
  ∞

x = x|Ψ| dx = |A|
2 2
xe−2λ|x| dx = 0. [Odd integrand.]
−∞

 ∞
2 1

x2  = 2|A|2 x2 e−2λx dx = 2λ 3
= .
0 (2λ) 2λ2

(c)

1 1 √ √
σ 2 =
x2  −
x2 = ; σ=√ . |Ψ(±σ)|2 = |A|2 e−2λσ = λe−2λ/ 2λ
= λe− 2
= 0.2431λ.
2λ2 2λ

|Ψ| 2
λ

.24λ

x
−σ +σ

Probability outside:
   ∞
∞ ∞
e−2λx  √
2 |Ψ|2 dx = 2|A|2 e−2λx dx = 2λ  = e−2λσ = e− 2 = 0.2431.
σ σ −2λ σ

Problem 1.6
For integration by parts, the differentiation has to be with respect to the integration variable – in this case the
differentiation is with respect to t, but the integration variable is x. It’s true that

∂ ∂x 2 ∂ ∂
(x|Ψ|2 ) = |Ψ| + x |Ψ|2 = x |Ψ|2 ,
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t
but this does not allow us to perform the integration:
 
b
∂ b
∂ b
x |Ψ|2 dx = (x|Ψ|2 )dx = (x|Ψ|2 )a .
a ∂t a ∂t

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CHAPTER 1. THE WAVE FUNCTION 7

Problem 1.7
 ∂2Ψ ∂2Ψ
From Eq. 1.33, dp
dt = −i
∂
∂t Ψ∗ ∂Ψ
∂x dx. But, noting that ∂x∂t = ∂t∂x and using Eqs. 1.23-1.24:
   
∂ ∗ ∂Ψ ∂Ψ∗ ∂Ψ ∗ ∂ ∂Ψ i
∂ 2 Ψ∗ i ∗ ∂Ψ ∗ ∂ i
∂ 2 Ψ i
Ψ = +Ψ = − + V Ψ + Ψ − VΨ
∂t ∂x ∂t ∂x ∂x ∂t 2m ∂x2
∂x ∂x 2m ∂x2

i
∂ 3 Ψ ∂ 2 Ψ∗ ∂Ψ i ∂Ψ ∂
= Ψ∗ 3 − + V Ψ∗ − Ψ∗ (V Ψ)
2m ∂x 2
∂x ∂x
∂x ∂x

The first term integrates to zero, using integration by parts twice, and the second term can be simplified to
V Ψ∗ ∂Ψ ∗ ∂Ψ ∗ ∂V
∂x − Ψ V ∂x − Ψ ∂x Ψ = −|Ψ| ∂x . So
2 ∂V

 
d
p i ∂V ∂V
= −i
−|Ψ|2 dx =
− . QED
dt
∂x ∂x

Problem 1.8

∂ Ψ 2 2

∂t = − 2m ∂x2 + V Ψ. We want to find the solution

Suppose Ψ satisfies the Schrödinger equation without V0 : i
∂Ψ
2

∂ Ψ0
2

∂t = − 2m ∂x2 + (V + V0 )Ψ0 .
Ψ0 with V0 : i
∂Ψ 0

Claim: Ψ0 = Ψe−iV0 t/
.

 2 2 
∂Ψ −iV0 t/

∂ Ψ
Proof: i
∂Ψ
∂t = i
∂t e
0
+ i
Ψ − iV
0 e−iV0 t/
= − 2m ∂x2 + V Ψ e
−iV0 t/

+ V0 Ψe−iV0 t/

2

∂ Ψ0 2
= − 2m ∂x2 + (V + V0 )Ψ0 . QED
This has no effect on the expectation value of a dynamical variable, since the extra phase factor, being inde-
pendent of x, cancels out in Eq. 1.36.

Problem 1.9
(a)

 ∞  1/4
−2amx2 /
21 π π
2am
1 = 2|A| 2
e dx = 2|A| = |A|2 ; A= .
0 2 (2am/
) 2am π

(b)
   
∂Ψ ∂Ψ 2amx ∂2Ψ 2am ∂Ψ 2am 2amx2
= −iaΨ; =− Ψ; =− Ψ+x =− 1− Ψ.
∂t ∂x
∂x2
∂x

∂ Ψ 2 2

∂t = − 2m ∂x2 + V Ψ:
Plug these into the Schrödinger equation, i
∂Ψ
  

2 2am 2amx2
V Ψ = i
(−ia)Ψ + − 1− Ψ
2m


 
2amx2
=
a −
a 1 − Ψ = 2a2 mx2 Ψ, so V (x) = 2ma2 x2 .

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8 CHAPTER 1. THE WAVE FUNCTION

(c)
 ∞

x = x|Ψ|2 dx = 0. [Odd integrand.]
−∞

 ∞
1 π


x2 e−2amx
2

x2  = 2|A|2 /

dx = 2|A|2 = .
0 22 (2am/
) 2am 4am

d
x

p = m = 0.
dt

  2 
∗
∂ ∂2Ψ

p  =
2
Ψ Ψdx = −
Ψ∗ 2 dx 2
i ∂x ∂x
  2
   
∗ 2am 2amx 2am
= −
2
Ψ − 1− Ψ dx = 2am
|Ψ| dx −
2
x |Ψ| dx
2 2




     
2am 2 2am
1
= 2am
1 −
x  = 2am
1 − = 2am
= am
.


4am 2

(d)

√
σx2 =
x2  −
x2 = =⇒ σx = ; σp2 =
p2  −
p2 = am
=⇒ σp = am
.
4am 4am

 √


σx σp = 4am am
=
2 . This is (just barely) consistent with the uncertainty principle.

Problem 1.10
From Math Tables: π = 3.141592653589793238462643 · · ·

P (0) = 0 P (1) = 2/25 P (2) = 3/25 P (3) = 5/25 P (4) = 3/25

(a)
P (5) = 3/25 P (6) = 3/25 P (7) = 1/25 P (8) = 2/25 P (9) = 3/25
N (j)
In general, P (j) = N .

(b) Most probable: 3. Median: 13 are ≤ 4, 12 are ≥ 5, so median is 4.

Average:
j = 1
25 [0 · 0 + 1 · 2 + 2 · 3 + 3 · 5 + 4 · 3 + 5 · 3 + 6 · 3 + 7 · 1 + 8 · 2 + 9 · 3]
1 118
= 25 [0 + 2 + 6 + 15 + 12 + 15 + 18 + 7 + 16 + 27] = 25 = 4.72.

(c)
j 2  = 1
25 [0 + 12 · 2 + 22 · 3 + 32 · 5 + 42 · 3 + 52 · 3 + 62 · 3 + 72 · 1 + 82 · 2 + 92 · 3]
1 710
= 25 [0 + 2 + 12 + 45 + 48 + 75 + 108 + 49 + 128 + 243] = 25 = 28.4.
√
σ 2 =
j 2  −
j2 = 28.4 − 4.722 = 28.4 − 22.2784 = 6.1216; σ = 6.1216 = 2.474.

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CHAPTER 1. THE WAVE FUNCTION 9

Problem 1.11
(a) Constant for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, otherwise zero. In view of Eq. 1.16, the constant is 1/π.

1/π, if 0 ≤ θ ≤ π,
ρ(θ) =
0, otherwise.
ρ(θ)
1/π

θ
−π/2 0 π 3π/2

(b)
   π
1 π
1 θ2  π

θ = θρ(θ) dθ = θdθ = = [of course].
π 0 π 2 0 2

  π
1 π
1 θ3  π2

θ  =
2 2
θ dθ = = .
π 0 π 3 0 3

π2 π2 π2 π
σ 2 =
θ2  −
θ2 = − = ; σ= √ .
3 4 12 2 3

(c)
 π
1 1 π 1 2

sin θ = sin θ dθ = (− cos θ)|0 = (1 − (−1)) = .
π 0 π π π

 π
1 1 π

cos θ = cos θ dθ = (sin θ)|0 = 0.
π 0 π

 π  π
1 1 1

cos θ =
2 2
cos θ dθ = (1/2)dθ = .
π 0 π 0 2

[Because sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1, and the integrals of sin2 and cos2 are equal (over suitable intervals), one can
replace them by 1/2 in such cases.]

Problem 1.12
(a) x = r cos θ ⇒ dx = −r sin θ dθ. The probability that the needle lies in range dθ is ρ(θ)dθ = 1
π dθ, so the
probability that it’s in the range dx is

1 dx 1 dx dx
ρ(x)dx = =  = √ .
π r sin θ π r 1 − (x/r)2 π r2 − x2

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10 CHAPTER 1. THE WAVE FUNCTION

ρ(x)

-2r -r r 2r x


√ 1 , if − r < x < r,
∴ ρ(x) = π r 2 −x2 [Note: We want the magnitude of dx here.]
0, otherwise.

r r 
x r
Total: √ 1
−r π r 2 −x2
dx = 2
π 0
√ 1
r 2 −x2
dx = 2
π sin−1 r 0 = 2
π sin−1 (1) = 2
π · π
2 = 1.

(b)
 r
1 1

x = x√ dx = 0 [odd integrand, even interval].
π −r r2 − x2

2
 r
x2 2 x 2 r2  x  r 2 2

x2  = √ dx = − r − x2 + sin−1  = 2 r sin−1 (1) = r .
π r2 − x2 π 2 2 r  π 2 2
0 0

√
σ 2 =
x2  −
x2 = r2 /2 =⇒ σ = r/ 2.

To get
x and
x2  from Problem 1.11(c), use x = r cos θ, so
x = r
cos θ = 0,
x2  = r2
cos2 θ = r2 /2.

Problem 1.13
Suppose the eye end lands a distance y up from a line (0 ≤ y < l), and let x be the projection along that same
direction (−l ≤ x < l). The needle crosses the line above if y + x ≥ l (i.e. x ≥ l − y), and it crosses the line
below if y + x < 0 (i.e. x < −y). So for a given value of y, the probability of crossing (using Problem 1.12) is

    
−y l −y l
1 1 1
P (y) = ρ(x)dx + ρ(x)dx = √ dx + √ dx
−l l−y π −l l − x2
2
l−y l − x2
2

  x −y  l 
1 −1  −1 x  1 
= sin  + sin  = − sin−1 (y/l) + 2 sin−1 (1) − sin−1 (1 − y/l)
π l −l l l−y π

sin−1 (y/l) sin−1 (1 − y/l)

=1− − .
π π
Now, all values of y are equally likely, so ρ(y) = 1/l, and hence the probability of crossing is
     
1 l −1 y −1 l−y 1 l 
P = π − sin − sin dy = π − 2 sin−1 (y/l) dy
πl 0 l l πl 0

  l
1  2 2 2
= πl − 2 y sin−1 (y/l) + l 1 − (y/l)2  = 1 − [l sin−1 (1) − l] = 1 − 1 + = .
πl 0 πl π π

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CHAPTER 1. THE WAVE FUNCTION 11

Problem 1.14
b b
(a) Pab (t) = a
|Ψ(x, t)2 dx, so dPab
dt = ∂
a ∂t
|Ψ|2 dx. But (Eq. 1.25):
 
∂|Ψ|2 ∂ i
∗ ∂Ψ ∂Ψ∗ ∂
= Ψ − Ψ = − J(x, t).
∂t ∂x 2m ∂x ∂x ∂t

 b
dPab ∂ b
∴ =− J(x, t)dx = − [J(x, t)]|a = J(a, t) − J(b, t). QED
dt a ∂x

Probability is dimensionless, so J has the dimensions 1/time, and units seconds−1 .

∗
(b) Here Ψ(x, t) = f (x)e−iat , where f (x) ≡ Ae−amx −iat df iat
2 df
/

, so Ψ ∂Ψ
∂x = f e dx e = f dx ,

and Ψ∗ ∂Ψ df
∂x = f dx too, so J(x, t) = 0.

Problem 1.15
∂Ψ∗ 2 ∗
i ∗ ∗
(a) Eq. 1.24 now reads ∂t = − 2m
i
∂ Ψ
∂x2 +
V Ψ , and Eq. 1.25 picks up an extra term:

∂ i i 2Γ 2
|Ψ|2 = · · · + |Ψ|2 (V ∗ − V ) = · · · + |Ψ|2 (V0 + iΓ − V0 + iΓ) = · · · − |Ψ| ,
∂t




2Γ ∞
dt = −
−∞ |Ψ| dx = −
P .
2Γ
and Eq. 1.27 becomes dP 2
QED

(b)

dP 2Γ 2Γ

= − dt =⇒ ln P = − t + constant =⇒ P (t) = P (0)e−2Γt/
, so τ = .
P

2Γ

Problem 1.16
Use Eqs. [1.23] and [1.24], and integration by parts:

 ∞  ∞  ∞ ∗ 
d ∂ ∂Ψ1 ∗ ∂Ψ2
Ψ∗1 Ψ2 dx = ∗
(Ψ1 Ψ2 ) dx = Ψ2 + Ψ1 dx
dt −∞ −∞ ∂t −∞ ∂t ∂t
 ∞    
−i
∂ 2 Ψ∗1 i ∗ ∗ i
∂ 2 Ψ2 i
= + V Ψ Ψ2 + Ψ − V Ψ 2 dx
−∞ 2m ∂x2
1 1
2m ∂x2

 ∞ 2 ∗ 2

i
∂ Ψ1 ∗ ∂ Ψ2
= − Ψ2 − Ψ 1 dx
2m −∞ ∂x2 ∂x2
 ∞  ∞ ∞  ∞ 
i
∂Ψ∗1  ∂Ψ∗1 ∂Ψ2 
∗ ∂Ψ2  ∂Ψ∗1 ∂Ψ2
= − Ψ2  − dx − Ψ1 + dx = 0. QED
2m ∂x −∞ −∞ ∂x ∂x ∂x −∞ −∞ ∂x ∂x

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12 CHAPTER 1. THE WAVE FUNCTION

Problem 1.17
(a)
  a
a
2 2
a
2x
3
x5 
1 = |A| 2
a −x
2
dx = 2|A| 2
a − 2a x + x dx = 2|A|
4 2 2 4 2
a x − 2a
4
+
−a 0 3 5 0
 
2 1 16 5 2 15
= 2|A|2 a5 1 − + = a |A| , so A = .
3 5 15 16a5

(b)
 a

x = x|Ψ|2 dx = 0. (Odd integrand.)
−a

(c)


2 a
d 2

p = A a2 − x2 a − x2 dx = 0. (Odd integrand.)
i −a dx
  
−2x

Since we only know
x at t = 0 we cannot calculate d
x/dt directly.

(d)
 a  a
2

x2  = A2 x2 a2 − x2 dx = 2A2 a4 x2 − 2a2 x4 + x6 dx
−a 0
3 5

7 a
 
15 x x x  = 15 7 1 2 1
=2 a4 − 2a2 + a − +
16a5 3 5 7 0 8a5 3 5 7
 
✚ 2 35 − 42 + 15
✚
15a a2 8 a2
= = · = .
8 3·✁
✁ 5·7 8 7 7

(e)
 a  a
d2 2

p2  = −A2
2 a2 − x2 2
a − x2 dx = 2A2
2 2 a2 − x2 dx
−a dx
   0
−2
 a  
15 2 x3  15
2 3 a3 15
2 2 5
2
=4·
a2 x −  = a − = · = .
16a5 3 0 4a5 3 4a2 3 2 a2

(f )
 1 2 a
σx =
x2  −
x2 = a = √ .
7 7

(g)

 5
2 5

σp =
p2  −
p2 = = .
2 a2 2a

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CHAPTER 1. THE WAVE FUNCTION 13

(h)

a 5
5 10


σx σp = √ · =
= > .

7 2a 14 7 2 2

Problem 1.18
h h2
√ >d ⇒ T < .
3mkB T 3mkB d2

(a) Electrons (m = 9.1 × 10−31 kg):

(6.6 × 10−34 )2
T < = 1.3 × 105 K.
3(9.1 × 10−31 )(1.4 × 10−23 )(3 × 10−10 )2

Sodium nuclei (m = 23mp = 23(1.7 × 10−27 ) = 3.9 × 10−26 kg):

(6.6 × 10−34 )2
T < = 3.0 K.
3(3.9 × 10−26 )(1.4 × 10−23 )(3 × 10−10 )2

(b) P V = N kB T ; volume occupied by one molecule (N = 1, V = d3 ) ⇒ d = (kB T /P )1/3 .

 2/3  3/5
h2 P h2 P 2/3 1 h2
T < ⇒ T 5/3 < 5/3
⇒T < P 2/5 .
2mkB kB T 3m k kB 3m
B

For helium (m = 4mp = 6.8 × 10−27 kg) at 1 atm = 1.0 × 105 N/m2 :
 3/5
1 (6.6 × 10−34 )2
T < (1.0 × 105 )2/5 = 2.8 K.
(1.4 × 10−23 ) 3(6.8 × 10−27 )

For hydrogen (m = 2mp = 3.4 × 10−27 kg) with d = 0.01 m:

(6.6 × 10−34 )2
T < = 3.1 × 10−14 K.
3(3.4 × 10−27 )(1.4× 10−23 )(10−2 )2

At 3 K it is definitely in the classical regime.

2005
c Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they
currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the
publisher.
14 CHAPTER 2. THE TIME-INDEPENDENT SCHRÖDINGER EQUATION

Chapter 2

Time-Independent Schrödinger
Equation

Problem 2.1
(a)

Ψ(x, t) = ψ(x)e−i(E0 +iΓ)t/
= ψ(x)eΓt/
e−iE0 t/
=⇒ |Ψ|2 = |ψ|2 e2Γt/
.

 ∞  ∞
|Ψ(x, t)| dx = e
2 2Γt/

|ψ|2 dx.
−∞ −∞

The second term is independent of t, so if the product is to be 1 for all time, the first term (e2Γt/
) must
also be constant, and hence Γ = 0. QED
2

∂ ψ 2
(b) If ψ satisfies Eq. 2.5, − 2m dx2 + V ψ = Eψ, then (taking the complex conjugate and noting that V and
2 ∗

∂ ψ
2
∗ ∗ ∗
E are real): − 2m dx2 + V ψ = Eψ , so ψ also satisfies Eq. 2.5. Now, if ψ1 and ψ2 satisfy Eq. 2.5, so
too does any linear combination of them (ψ3 ≡ c1 ψ1 + c2 ψ2 ):
 

2 ∂ 2 ψ 3
2 ∂ 2 ψ1 ∂ 2 ψ2
− + V ψ 3 = − c1 + c2 + V (c1 ψ1 + c2 ψ2 )
2m dx2 2m dx2 ∂x2

2 d 2 ψ 1
2 d 2 ψ2
= c1 − + V ψ 1 + c2 − + V ψ2
2m dx2 2m dx2
= c1 (Eψ1 ) + c2 (Eψ2 ) = E(c1 ψ1 + c2 ψ2 ) = Eψ3 .

Thus, (ψ + ψ ∗ ) and i(ψ − ψ ∗ ) – both of which are real – satisfy Eq. 2.5. Conclusion: From any complex
solution, we can always construct two real solutions (of course, if ψ is already real, the second one will be
zero). In particular, since ψ = 12 [(ψ + ψ ∗ ) − i(i(ψ − ψ ∗ ))], ψ can be expressed as a linear combination of
two real solutions. QED
(c) If ψ(x) satisfies Eq. 2.5, then, changing variables x → −x and noting that ∂ 2 /∂(−x)2 = ∂ 2 /∂x2 ,

2 ∂ 2 ψ(−x)
− + V (−x)ψ(−x) = Eψ(−x);
2m dx2
so if V (−x) = V (x) then ψ(−x) also satisfies Eq. 2.5. It follows that ψ+ (x) ≡ ψ(x) + ψ(−x) (which is
even: ψ+ (−x) = ψ+ (x)) and ψ− (x) ≡ ψ(x) − ψ(−x) (which is odd: ψ− (−x) = −ψ− (x)) both satisfy Eq.

2005
c Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they
currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the
publisher.