Unit 3​

Computer Architecture and Storage

Estelle Lai Yinn
[email protected]

T1 - CPU Architecture

-​ Understand the role of CPU and the fetch-execute-cycle

-​ Understand the role of the Von Neumann architecture:
-​ MAR
-​ CIR
-​ MDR
-​ Program Counter (PC)
-​ Accumulator (ACC)
-​ Understand common CPU Operators including:
-​ ALU
-​ CU
-​ Registers

Input devices - keyboard, touch screen, buttons, microphone, trackpad.

Output devices - speaker, display

Processing unit for this - CPU

CPU -> Contains both main memory and secondary storage.

CPU DEFINITION:

Takes in data and instructions

Processes them

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Outputs the result

Purpose of the CPU:

The CPU processes instructions.

When you run a program, the CPU will process the data and instructions that are inputted,
the results from the input passed over to the processing CPU is the output.

The Main components of the Computer :

-​ Main memory
-​ CPU (central processing unit)
-​ Secondary storage
-​ Output devices
-​ Input devices

About Von Neumann and the Storage program concept:

Program was not stored back then, (before about 1943), instructions were input one at a
time using switches, or read in punch cards and executed one at a time.

The stored-program counter was when Mathematician Von Neumann developed the idea
of storing program instructions as well as the data, into the memory.

Von-Neumann architecture:

Program instructions and data the programs are using are stored into the same memory.
Both the CPU and the RAM store instructions as well as data.

Components of the CPU:

The CPU has two major components called the control unit (CU) and the Arithmetic Logic
unit (ALU)

There are also registers that are used to carry out these operations

-​ A register is a very fast memory location in the CPU itself

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 -​ Cache is located on the CPU, but is much slower to access than registers but faster
than RAM.

Registers in the CPU:

PC - Program Counter = holds the address of the next instruction to be executed.

MAR - Memory Address Register = holds the memory address of the current instruction,
and then the data that it uses, so that these can be fetched from the memory

MDR - Memory Data Register = holds the actual instruction, then the data that have been
fetched front the memory.

CIR - Current Instruction Register = holds the instruction currently being executed or
decoded.

ACC - Accumulator = holds the result of the instruction before it is transferred to memory.

Control Unit (CU) -> It coordinates and controls all the other activities taking place within
the CPU. such as: (basically also manages the fetch-decode-execute cycle)

-​ It decodes instructions and sends them back

-​ It receives signals from the system clock
-​ It directs the timing and control of other parts of the CPU,(like a conductor or an
orchestra)

Program Counter (PC) - holds the address of the next instruction to be executed

-​ It is incremented (increased by 1) as soon as that instruction has been fetched.

Accumulator (ACC) - is where arithmetic and logic results are temporarily stored, much
like the M+ function on a calculator.

What is the Arithmetic Logic Unit for: (ALU - what does it do?).

It is where the actual arithmetic operations are done. (also carries out logical operations,
e.g AND, OR and NOT.

So it will come from the main memory, passing the ALU and to the Accumulator

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The FETCH-DECODE-EXECUTE CYCLE: (F-E cycle)

The CPU operates by repeating three operations:

1.​ FETCH - causes the next instruction and any data involved to be fetched from the
main memory
2.​ DECODE - decodes the next instruction
3.​ EXECUTE - the instruction is executed

This process is then repeated…

MAR and MDR:

In the FETCH stage of the F-E cycle:

-​ The address of the instruction to be executed is copied from the Program Counter
(PC) to the Memory Address Register (MAR)
-​ Remember- the MAR holds the memory address of the next instruction and the data
that it uses
-​ The instruction at that address is fetched from memory and copied to the Memory
Data Register (MDR)
-​ Remember - the MDR holds the actual instruction currently being executed and
decoded.

The Control Unit (CU) decodes the instruction and decides if data needs to be fetched.

If so, the MAR is then used to hold the address of the data to be used in the instruction.

The data is fetched and copied to the MDR.

The Two work together, the MAR knows where to look for the data in the RAM, and the
MDR keeps hold of that data until it is ready to be used in the CPU.

Current Instruction Register (CIR):

The current instruction register holds the instruction that is being executed or decoded at
the moment.

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Once the instruction is loaded from memory, it is stored in the current instruction register
(CIR), so it will be stored there.

Processor / CPU Architecture:

To describe the Process of the fetch-decode-execute cycle:

How instructions and data are fetched from the MAR into the CPU , how they are processed
by each component and then how they are executed.

1.​ PC holds the address/location of the next instruction to be fetched.

2.​ The address held in the PC is sent to the Memory Address Register (MAR)
3.​ It is sent by the Address bus
4.​ The Program Counter is then incremented
5.​ The instruction set is sent from the address in memory to the Memory Data
Register.
6.​ The instruction is transferred using the data bus
7.​ Then the instruction is then sent to the Current Instruction Register (CIR)
8.​ The instruction is then decoded by the Control Unit, into an opcode and an operand
9.​ The instruction is then executed by the ALU (performs calculations and arithmetic
operations)
10.​ ACC is built in the register that stores the value/result form the calculation before
its executed.

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 11.​The ALU then sends back the data back to the MDR, then written into the RAM

T2 - CPU PERF’(Performance)/BUSSES

-​ Understand the following terms and how they affect the performance of a CPU:
-​ Cores
-​ Cache
-​ Clock
-​ Understand the purpose of buses including:
-​ The address bus
-​ The data bus
-​ The control bus

Factors that affect the CPU performance:

-​ Clock Speed
-​ Cache size
-​ Number of cores

Clock speed:

-​ Cycles per second, measured by hertz

-​ The clock-speed determines the number of fetch-execute cycles per second.
-​ Each cycle is 1 hertz

One cycle per second = 1 Hertz (Hz) = 1 instruction carried out each second.

Cache Size:

-​ Small storage that stores frequently used instructions/data, to speed up access

-​ Cache on the CPU is faster than RAM but slower than registers
-​ Since cache memory operates much faster than main memory, data is transferred in
and out of cache memory more quickly.
-​ This makes the CPU much more efficient as it takes less time which is spent for data
to be transferred.

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 -​ There are 2-3 of cache memory, the fastest cache with the smallest capacity is Lvl 1.
-​ It will come from a cycle of CPU -> cache -> main memory , then back from the main
memory to the CPU.

Effect on speed of cache

-​ RAM is relatively slow memory to access and it is further away from the processor
than cache.
-​ Program instructions and data that are fetched are stored in cache in case they are
needed again soon.
-​ It takes longer to retrieve data or instructions from RAM than from cache
-​ Having instructions in the loop in cache will speed up execution, e.g a while
loop

Levels of Cache memory:

Level 1 - extremely fast but small, located on the CPU - each core will have their own Lvl 1
cache.

Level 2 - is also usually given to each core, it is very fast but a little slower than Level 1
cache.

Level 3 - is the slowest type of cache, but still faster than RAM. Is usually located on the CPU
and is shared between all the cores on the processor.

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Number of Cores:

-​ A processor may contain more than one core

-​ Each core can process once operation per clock cycle.
-​ A dual core processor can perform two or four operations simultaneously, but only
if the software is programmed to run with multi-core processors.
-​ Theres, CPU, Dual core, Quad core, and Octa core (8).

Multi-core processors:

-​ A dual core processor has 2 processors in the same integrated circuit, linked
together.
-​ It has the potential to perform 2 processors at the same time
-​ It allows twice as many instructions to be executed, but doesn’t always
perform at this rate as it cannot take advantage of both of the cores.
-​ Then there's quad core processors

More instructions that can be processed by the cores mean much faster processing time.

BUSSES:

A bus is a set of parallel wires connecting two or more components of the computer.

-​ When a computer wishes to access a particular main memory location, it sends the
address requested (from PC or MAR) to memory on the address bus.
-​ The data in that location is then returned to the CPU on the data bus (to MDR)
-​ Control signals are sent along the control bus.

System Bus:

The three buses that make up the system bus are:

Address Bus: stores the address of the memory or device controller to be read from or
written to

Data bus: carries data throughout the computer system

Control bus: uses control signals to control all activities within the CPU

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 +​ The system bus also connects the CPU to other external input-output devices.

T3 - Embedded Systems and Instruction Sets:

-​ Understand the purpose and use of an instruction set for a CPU

-​ Understand what is meant by a microprocessor
-​ Describe the purpose and characteristics of an embedded system
-​ Be abe to identify devices which commonly use embedded systems

CPUs use very simple instructions known as machine code or assembly language.

-​ Harder instructions are broken down into simpler assembly code instructions.

Processors execute machine code, the binary instructions which the computer can
respond directly to perform a task.

INSTRUCTION SETS:

Instruction sets are all the possible instructions that are able to be decoded and executed
by a CPU

-​ Each type of processor will have a specific list of commands written in machine code
that can be understood and executed by the CPU (otherwise called an instruction
set).
-​ A particular CPU will have its own instruction set.
-​ Programs written for one type of CPU won’t work on another.

Operators and Operands:

In ordinary Maths and programming, we use the words operator and operand.

Operator - performs an operation (calculation) on the operands

Operand - is the values used in the operation.

Opcode - the instruction of the operation/calculation.

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Assembly codes:

When programming a processor a special language called assembly code is used.

-​ The program is then assembled into a binary form known as machine code- this is
what is run by the processor.
-​ The assembly code (and machine code) make use of the opcodes and operands
-​ The opcode is the instruction and the operands are the values that the instruction
works on.

Microprocessor:

A microprocessor is an integrated circuit that is all contained on a single chip.

-​ CPUs are a type of microprocessor, they include Pentium microprocessors and ARM
microprocessors.
-​ Microcontrollers contain not only the microprocessor, but also the RAM and the
ROM (Read only memory) or flash memory, for volatile and non-volatile storage- this
allows for an entire computer to be contained into one chip.

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:

An Embedded system is used to control the function of electronic devices such as those
commonly found at home.

They perform limited functions and very specific tasks (as their inputs are by a button or
switch).

They must be reliable as they cannot be modified once manufactured.

DEFINITION FOR EMBEDDED SYSTEM: A microprocessor that is used to perform a

dedicated function within a larger mechanical/electronic system.

OR

It is a single microprocessor that includes RAM, ROM and a CPU.

Examples of embedded systems:

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 -​ Washing machines
-​ Security systems
-​ Automatic lighting systems
-​ Vending machines
-​ Traffic lights
-​ Cooling systems

Characteristics of Embedded systems: (also in comparison to general purpose

machines)

Characteristic Embedded system General Purpose machines

CPU speed Typically slow Typically very fast

Software Has only one purpose and New software can be installed
cannot install a new
software

Storage Programs are stored in Programs are stored in hard drives

ROM

Reliability Typically very reliable- e.g a As it runs many software programs

microwave should not have it may be less reliable and need
a bug in the system as it is restarting the device.
fixed

T4 - Memory:

-​ Understand the meaning of primary storage including the role of:\

-​ Random Access Memory (RAM)
-​ Read only memory (ROM)
-​ Describe the difference between RAM and ROM and why both are needed
-​ Describe what is meant by virtual memory including:
-​ How it is created and used
-​ The reason why it is necessary

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FOUR TYPES OF MEMORY USED IN COMPUTER SYSTEMS:

-​ RAM
-​ ROM
-​ Virtual memory
-​ Cache memory

Primary Storage:

Main memory (RAM/ROM) is directly accessible by the CPU. It is also known as the
primary storage.

There are many types of memory used in computers. (In the Von Neumann architecture,
primary storage is directly linked to the CPU and is needed to store programs that are
currently running.)

The need for primary storage:

RAM (Random Access Memory) is required to temporarily store the instructions and data
the computer needs whilst it is in operation.

They are copied from the hard disk into main memory when they are required, because it
would be too slow to access everything directly from the hard disk.

Cache is used for faster access to store instructions and data.

RAM (Random Access Memory):

RAM stores programs or data that are running or open.

-​ It is directly accessed by the CPU

-​ When your computer is turned off, data stored in RAM is lost. So it means it is
volatile, as it loses data as soon as it’s turned off.
-​ It is your computers temporary storage/working memory.

All your programs and data are stored permanently on your hard drive. (This would then
be only known as non-volatile, as it doesn’t lose the data when it is turned off)

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 +​ When the computer is first turned on, no data is stored in the RAM
+​ Operating system: the computer first loads the operating system from your hard
drive into RAM.

Programs and Data:

When applications or programs are loaded, they are copied into RAM from the hard drive.

-​ Documents and files (data) that are used with those programs are also opened by
copying them into RAM.

RAM starts to fill up as all these programs, documents and files are copied.

However, what happens when you want to access a program such as a brower,
however it needs more memory than what you have in the RAM?

VIRTUAL MEMORY:

Virtual memory is used when there isn’t enough space in RAM for all the programs and
data you are currently working on.

-​ It is a part of a hard drive. (a small section of the hard drive is reserved to act like the
RAM).
-​ This can cause your computer to noticeable slow down since the access from the
hard drive is slower than the RAM.
-​ A page of data is a fixed-length block of virtual memory.
-​ When pages of data are removed between RAM and hard disk this is known as
swapping or paging

When there is any virtual memory in a computer??

When the RAM is full, it would freeze or crash due to the large amount of programs and
data stored in the memory.

This can cause programs to crash, the system to freeze and show “out of memory” errors.
And will be unable to open any more programs as the system may refuse to open new
programs or be very slow.

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Advantages of Virtual Memory:

-​ Uses cheap secondary storage on the hard drive

-​ Prevents error messages staying “out of memory” - the programs and files will still
open.

Disadvantages of Virtual Memory:

-​ Accessing virtual memory is very slow

-​ To access data, the existing data in RAM needs to be copied to the virtual memory,
then data in virtual memory needs to be copied to RAM.

ROM (Read-only Memory):

ROM Stores instructions and data that never need to be changed. Some data needs to be
permanently held in primary storage, even when the computer has no power.

-​ Data is read from ROM, not written on it.

-​ It is non-volatile as data isn’t lost when the power is turned off

ROM and Modern Computer:

ROM is used in modern computers to store:

-​ The initial program that is run when the computer is turned on, known as
bootstrap
-​ It tells the computer where it will find the operating system (when the hard drive
copies data to the RAM) on the hard drive.

It also stores (BIOS) - Basic Input/Output System.

-​ The BIOS can run without a hard drive or other secondary storage being present. It
controls basic technical configuration of the computer such as the processor
speed and system time.

Highlighting the DIFFERENCES between RAM and ROM:

Characteristics RAM ROM

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Volatility Volatile - all data is lost Non-volatile - data is
when the power is turned permanently retained
off without power

Used to store? Running programs and Stores BIOS (Basic

operating systems Input/Output Systems) and
bootstrap (initial program
that is run when computer
is on)

Read Ability Yes Yes

Write Ability Yes No

Used for? Used as the computer’s Used for computer’s startup

working memory for instructions and in
instructions, programs and embedded systems.
data

Size Bigger than ROM Smaller than RAM

Stores Embedded Systems

Memory Speed:

The speed that data can be accessed changes through the different components in a
computer.

-​ The slower components are far cheaper for each byte of data stored.

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T5 - Secondary Storage:

-​ Understand the need for secondary storage

-​ Describe the operation of the following types of storage and give examples of each:
-​ Magnetic storage
-​ Optical storage
-​ Solid-state storage

Secondary storage:

Secondary storage is not directly accessed by the CPU and is needed for permanent
storage of data.

-​ It is non-volatile, meaning it will keep data even if there is no power

-​ Secondary storage devices may be internal or external to computers, external
devices are portable and may have very large capacities.
-​ Secondary storage includes hard drives, USB flash drives, CDs and other portable
storage devices.
-​ Modifiable storage of data

It is needed for longer term storage of files and data because it is non-volatile.

Uses of Secondary storage: (memorise at least 3)

-​ Programs and data are stored on hard drive

-​ Blu-rays may be used to distribute films.
-​ Memory sticks may be used to transport data from one place to another
-​ Magnetic tape or external hard drives may be used for back up
-​ SD cards can be used for additional storage on cameras and smartphones- is used
for music, video and photos.

REMEMBER (STORAGE TYPES):

Primary storage:

-​ RAM (Random Access Memory)

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 -​ ROM (Read-only memory)

Secondary storage:

-​ Hard disk drive (HDD)

-​ Solid state drive (SSD )

Offline secondary storage:

-​ Compact disk (CD), Digital Versatile Disc (DVD), or BluRay

-​ Flash memory, SD cards
-​ Removable HDD or SSD
-​ Magnetic tape.

Types of Secondary storage methods:

-​ Magnetic = Mechanical parts move over the disks surface to read and write data
magnetically, or a drive head reads a magnetic tape
-​ Optical = lasers read and write data using light
-​ Solid State = Data is recorded onto solid memory chips without any moving parts.

Applications of storage media: (Good and Bad factors)

SSDs, require very little power and create little heat owing to the lack of moving parts,
making them suitable for laptop and tablet devices.

The lack of moving parts make them small and reliable - perfect for small portable devices
with built-in storage like cameras and smartphones.

They are also used in desktop and laptop computers, they can be 100 times faster than
hard disks and do not require cooling systems.

Hard disk drives (HDD) are cheaper and commonly found in desktop computers. SSDs may
be used as a sole alternative or in conjunction with HDDs to store operating systems and
other software that needs to be executed as fast as possible

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CDs, DVDs are useful for videos and music data in the short to medium term with a life
expectancy of 10-12 years. USB flash drives are much more reliable and effective for
regular back up of small files as they are more durable.

Magnetic Disks:

Basic features:

-​ Disk containing concentric circles called tracks

-​ Each track is divided into sectors
-​ Disk Heads mounted on mechanical arms read and write the data.

Data is stored on platters

Magnetic field determines binary value.

A disk that has a solid platter is a “hard” disk. Soft plastic disks are known as “floppy” disks.

HARD DISKS:

PARTS OF A MAGNETIC HARD DISK:

Hard disk part Explanation
Drive head It is the magnetic head that move across platters to
read or write data to them.

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 Actuator Controls the precise positioning of the read/write
head, allowing it to access data on spinning platters
Drive spindle It is a central shaft which holds the platters and spins
them at high speeds, the faster the speed the more
data that can be read/written
Platter These are circular disks coated with material. Data is
stored in these platters in binary (0s and 1s) using
magnetism. There can be multiple platters to increase
storage capacity.
Track Track is the circles in the disk.
Sector Tracks which are divided into sectors.

Interface controller Connects the hard disk to the rest of the computer,
managing the flow of data to/from the drive.

Magnetic Storage: Hard Disks:

Fixed magnetic disks (hard) are still used in many PCs and laptops

-​ They have a very large storage capacity, up to 6TB or more

-​ The more bits of data they store, the more prominent the the data is of the hard
disk.
-​ They are very cheap form of storage compared to solid state drives.

Portable hard disks can be connected to a computer via a USB port

-​ They are used for backing or transporting data.

Magnetic storage: - ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES:

Advantages

-​ Cheap, large storage capacity, relatively fast write speeds

Disadvantages:

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 -​ Lots of mechanical parts, durability an issue, sealed unit due to disk head and
platter precision and not very portable

Uses:

-​ Personal computers, storage of large quantities of data

Capacity:

-​ 500GB - 12TB or greater.

(Optical Drives) - CDs, DVDs and BluRay:

An optical drive uses a laser to reflect light off the surface of the disk. One long spiral track
contains pits and land.

When the laser beam hits the covered start or end of a pit, the light is reflected and a 1
is recorded.

Where light is reflected back directly from the flat bottom of the pit, or from the track
with no pit (a land) a 0 is recorded.

A CD has bigger pits and lands than BluRay as red light has a larger wavelength.

The smaller BluRay pits and lands allow it to store more data

SOLID STATE DRIVES (SSD)

Basic Features:

-​ Solid state drives use non-volatile flash memory to store information

-​ Very fast read/write speeds as it doesn’t need to wait for a disk to spin to the correct
location and an arm to move.
-​ No mechanical or moving parts meaning these disks are very durable.

Advantages and disadvantages of SSDs:

Advantages;

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 -​ Highly durable, no moving parts, very fast read/write speeds, no noisy fan or drive
arm, faster start up times

Disadvantages:

-​ More expensive than magnetic hard disks, similar storage capacity as magnetic disks

Uses:

-​ Higher end computers

-​ Laptops
-​ Smartphones and tables

Capacity:

100GB - 16TB

FLASH MEMORY:

They are low cost, portable, no moving parts, durable.

They are non-volatile

It makes them ideal for a range of offline devices:

-​ Cameras
-​ Mobile devices
-​ USB memory sticks (hard drives)

How does flash memory store data?

A floating gate may or may not store electrons

If no electrons are present in the floating gate, the current will flow, representing a 1

If electrons are stored in the floating gate, the current doesn’t flow, representing a 0.

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The Isolation layer:

The isolation layer are semiconductors known as transistors.

-​ In order to write to the flash memory cell, the electrons need to pass through the
isolation layer.
-​ The electrons will only move through this layer when writing
-​ Normally, they remain trapped in a floating gate, representing a 0.

Writing Data (Storing Electrons):

-​ High voltage is used to force electrons through an insulating layer into the floating
gate.
-​ Reading Data:
-​ The system checks if current can flow through the cell.
-​ If electrons are trapped, current is blocked = 1 value.
-​ If no electrons, current flows = different value.
-​ Erasing Data:
-​ Another voltage is applied to pull the electrons back out, resetting the cell.

0 = electrons trapped, data written ✅

1 = no electrons, default/erased state

How flash memory writes data:

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The control gate is used to move electrons into or out of the floating gate.

-​ A negative voltage forces electrons out of the floating gate

-​ A positive voltage forces electrons into the floating gate.

Storing density in flash memory:

In order to increase the storage density of memory chips, the number of floating gates in a
flash cell is increased.

Solid-state (flash) Memory:

There are two types of flash memory which are available:

-​ NOR
-​ NAND

NOR flash memory is used for programs

-​ Reading from NOR flash is random access like RAM

-​ It is used to store code such as the BIOS and possibly an operating system and code
is executed directly by the CPU
-​ At least one memory cell must conduct in order to pull down the bit line, because
they are connected in parallel to the ground.
-​ More space - is pricier, expensive, fast reading

NAND flash memory is used for data storage:

-​ NAND memory works like other secondary storage

-​ Data is first copied to RAM before it is accessed by the CPU.
-​ Memory cells are arranged differently
-​ Memory cells here must conduct electricity to output a logic “0”
-​ Less space - is cheaper, slow reading

Memory computer = it is responsible for the communication between the flash chips and
the computer, which also controls the read and write operations on a hardware level.

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T6 - Cloud Storage:

-​ Understand what is meant by cloud storage

-​ Explain the advantages and disadvantages of storing data on the cloud in
comparison to storing it locally.

Cloud storage refers to remote file storage on someone else’s servers. Often this is with a
major third-party company such as Google, Microsoft, or Dropbox. Physical servers and
storage are needed to store data in cloud storage.

Remote storage provided by a company that is brought as a service

The Cloud:

The cloud is another name for services offered via the Internet (the cloud symbol
represents the Internet)

-​ Cloud storage can be accessed remotely in comparison to storing data locally

-​ Physical servers and storage are needed to store data in cloud storage.

The cloud can be split into 2 major areas:

-​ Cloud storage
-​ Cloud computing

Cloud Storage:

Cloud storage allows users to store files and data on the Internet.

The files are accessed remotely by users.

Data may be stored in multiple locations.

-​ A professional company will manage the data storage.

Cloud Storage Features:

-​ Synchronisation of devices with the cloud storage

-​ 24/7 availability

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 -​ Redundancy
-​ Multiple file versions
-​ Only pay for storage used
-​ Scalability

Redundancy:

Storage redundancy is where multiple copies are stored in different locations

-​ In local storage this is normally carried out by having multiple copies of files on 2
different hard drives in 1 server.
-​ In cloud storage, the locations that store redundant files may be anywhere in the
world.

Scalability:

Scalability is the ability of the storage system or cloud computing resources to increase in
size

Cloud storage normally charges for the amount of storage used

-​ Increasing offline storages usually requires the purchase of new disks.

Data Centres:

Data centers are buildings that are dedicated to to storing physical servers

-​ Each server will contain an array of hard drives

-​ Professional engineers will manage the computers
-​ The buildings will have temperature control and air conditioning, to control over
heating and cooling.

Privacy:

If data is stored in the cloud, the security and privacy of the data is controlled by an
external company.

-​ Data stored locally is under the control of a single person or organisation

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 -​ Both cloud storage and local storage may be hacked, however, typically cloud
storage will be more secure.
-​ Companies and organisations will need to consider the level they trust an external
company to hold their data.

Data Transfer Speeds:

When a file is used that is on cloud storage it must first be downloaded.

-​ With a fast connection and a small office document this may happen in a few
seconds
-​ However, with files such those used in video editing it may take may hours to open
or save files to cloud storage.

Local storage is very fast to transfer data

Cloud storage differs from local storage as local storage consists of hard drives that are
owned and maintained by the user or organization themselves.

Pros: of cloud storage in comparison to local Cons: of cloud storage in comparison to local

+ high security - internet connection dependant

+ accessible anywhere with Internet - expensive
+ professionally managed - no complete control
+ easy data sharing - privacy concerns
+ easy collaboration - data handled by 3rd party
+ synchronisation
+ regular data backup
+ scalability: need more buy more
+ historical file versions

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