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S. Ponnusamy

Foundations of
Mathematical Analysis
S. Ponnusamy
Department of Mathematics
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Chennai 600 036
India
[email protected]

ISBN 978-0-8176-8291-0 e-ISBN 978-0-8176-8292-7

DOI 10.1007/978-0-8176-8292-7
Springer New York Dordrecht Heidelberg London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2011941616

Mathematics Subject Classification (2010): 26-01, 26Axx

c Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012

All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written
permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, NY
10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection
with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden.
The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are
not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject
to proprietary rights.

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media

(www.birkhauser-science.com)
 To my parents

Saminathan Pillai and Valliammai

Preface

Mathematical analysis is central to mathematics curricula not only because

it is a stepping-stone to the study of advanced analysis, but also because of
its applications to other branches of mathematics, physics, and engineering at
both the undergraduate and graduate levels. Although there are many texts on
this subject under various titles such as “Analysis,” “Advanced Calculus,” and
“Real Analysis,” there seems to be a need for a text that explains fundamental
concepts with motivating examples and with a geometric flavor wherever it
is appropriate. It is hoped that this book will serve that need. This book
provides an introduction to mathematical analysis for students who have some
familiarity with the real number system. Many ideas are explained in more
than one way with accompanying figures in order to help students to think
about concepts and ideas in several ways. It is hoped that through this book,
both student and teacher will enjoy the beauty of some of the arguments that
are often used to prove key theorems—regardless of whether the proofs are
short or long.
The distinguishing features of the book are as follows. It gives a largely
self-contained and rigorous introduction to mathematical analysis that pre-
pares the student for more advanced courses by making the subject matter
interesting and meaningful. The exposition of standard material has been
done with extra care and abundant motivation. Unlike many standard texts,
the emphasis in the present book is on teaching these topics rather than
merely presenting the standard material. The book is developed through pa-
tient explanations, motivating examples, and pictorial illustrations conveying
geometric intuition in a pleasant and informal style to help the reader grasp
difficult concepts easily.
Each section ends with a carefully selected set of “Questions” and “Ex-
ercises.” The questions are intended to stimulate the reader to think, for
example, about the nature of a definition or the fate of a theorem without one
or more of its hypotheses. The exercises cover a broad spectrum of difficulty
and are intended not only for routine problem solving, but also to deepen

VII
VIII Preface

understanding of concepts and techniques of proof. As a whole, the questions

and exercises provide enough material for oral discussions and written assign-
ments, and working through them should lead to a mature knowledge of the
subject presented.
Some of the exercises are routine in nature, while others are interesting,
instructive, and challenging. Hints are provided for selected questions and
exercises. Students are strongly encouraged to work on these questions and
exercises and to discuss them with fellow students and teachers. They are also
urged to prepare short synopses of various proofs that they encounter.

Content and Organization: The book consists of eleven chapters, which are
further divided into sections that have a number of subsections. Each section
includes a careful selection of special topics covered in subsections that will
serve to illustrate the scope and power of various methods in real analysis.
Proofs of even the most elementary facts are detailed with a careful presenta-
tion. Some of the subsections may be ignored based on syllabus requirements,
although keen readers may certainly browse through them to broaden their
horizons and see how this material fits in the general scheme of things. The
main thrust of the book is on convergence of sequences and series, continu-
ity, differentiability, the Riemann integral, power series, uniform convergence
of sequences and series of functions, Fourier series, and various important
applications.
Chapter 1 provides a gentle introduction to the real number system, which
should be more or less familiar to the reader. Chapter 2 begins with the con-
cept of the limit of a sequence and examines various properties of convergent
sequences. We demonstrate the bounded monotone convergence theorem and
continue the discussion with Cauchy sequences. In Chapter 3, we define the
concept of the limit of a function through sequences. We then continue to
define continuity and differentiability of functions and establish properties of
these classes of functions, and briefly explain the uniformly continuity of func-
tions. In Chapter 4, we prove Rolle’s theorem and the mean value theorem
and apply continuity and differentiability in finding maxima and minima. In
Chapter 5, we establish a number of tests for determining whether a given
series is convergent or divergent. Here we introduce the base of the natu-
ral logarithm e and prove that it is irrational. We present Riemann’s rear-
rangement theorem for conditionally convergent series. We end this chapter
with applications of Dirichlet’s test and summability of series. There are two
well-known approaches to Riemann integration, namely Riemann’s approach
through the convergence of arbitrary Riemann sums, and Darboux’s approach
via upper and lower sums. In Chapter 6, we give both of these approaches and
show their equivalence, along with a number of motivating examples. After
presenting standard properties of Riemann integrals, we use them in evaluat-
ing the limits of certain sequences. In this chapter, we meet the fundamental
theorem of calculus, which “connects the integral of a function and its an-
 Preface IX

tiderivative.” In Chapter 7, we discuss the convergence and the divergence

of improper integrals and give interesting examples of improper integrals,
namely, the gamma function and the beta function. Our particular applica-
tion emphasizes the integral test, the convergence of harmonic p-series, and
the Abel–Pringsheim divergence test. We deal with a number of applications
of the Riemann integral, e.g., in finding areas of regions bounded by curves
and arc lengths of plane curves.
Chapter 8 begins with the theory of power series, their convergence prop-
erties, and Abel’s theorem and its relation to the Cauchy product. Finally,
we present some methods of computing the interval of convergence of a given
power series. Chapter 9 contains a systematic discussion of pointwise and uni-
form convergence of sequence of functions. Students generally find it difficult
to understand the difference between pointwise and uniform convergence. We
illustrate this difference with numerous examples. We examine the close re-
lationship between uniform convergence and integration—on the interchange
of the order of integration and summation in the limit process—followed by
a similar relationship between uniform convergence and differentiation. In
Chapter 10, we introduce Fourier series with their convergence properties. In
addition, we present a number of examples to demonstrate the use of Fourier
series, such as how a given function can be represented in terms of a series of
sine and cosine functions. The reader is encouraged to make use of computer
packages such as Mathematica and MapleTM where appropriate. Finally, in
Chapter 11, we introduce a special class of functions, namely functions of
bounded variation, and give a careful exposition of the Riemann–Stieltjes in-
tegral.

Numbering: The various theorems, corollaries, lemmas, propositions, remarks,

examples, questions, and exercises are numbered consecutively within a chap-
ter, without regard to label, and always carry the number of the chapter in
which they reside. The end of the proof of a theorem, corollary, lemma, or
proposition is indicated by a solid square and the end of a worked-out ex-
ample or remark by a bullet •.

Acknowledgments: Special thanks are due to my friend G.P. Youvaraj, who

read the entire first draft of the manuscript with care and made many valu-
able suggestions. It is a great pleasure in offering my warmest thanks to Herb
Silverman, who read the final manuscript and assisted me with numerous
helpful suggestions. My Ph.D. students, especially, S.K. Sahoo, Allu Vasude-
varao, and P. Vasundhra, helped me with the preparation of the LATEX files on
different occasions. Figures were created mainly by S.K. Sahoo. I thank them
all for their help. I am grateful to my wife, Geetha, daughter, Abirami, and
son, Ashwin, for their support and encouragement; their constant reminders
helped me in completing this project on time.
X Preface

The book was written with support from the Golden Jubilee Book Writ-
ing Scheme of the Indian Institute of Technology Madras, India. I thank
IIT Madras for this support. It gives me immense pleasure in thanking the
publisher and the editor, Tom Grasso, for his efficient responses during the
preparation of the manuscript.

IIT Madras, India S. Ponnusamy

Contents

1 The Real Number System 1

1.1 Sets and Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Review of Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 The Rational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.3 The Irrational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.4 Algebraic Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.5 The Field of Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.6 An Ordered Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.7 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2 Supremum and Infimum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.1 Least Upper Bounds and Greatest Lower Bounds . . . . . . 11
1.2.2 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2.3 Equivalent and Countable Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2.4 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2 Sequences: Convergence and Divergence 23

2.1 Sequences and Their Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.1 Limits of Sequences of Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.1.2 Operations on Convergent Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1.3 The Squeeze/Sandwich Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.1.4 Bounded Monotone Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.1.5 Subsequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.1.6 Bounded Monotone Convergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.1.7 The Bolzano–Weierstrass Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.1.8 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.2 Limit Inferior, Limit Superior, and Cauchy Sequences . . . . . . . . 53
2.2.1 Cauchy Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.2.2 Summability of Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.2.3 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

XI
XII Contents

3 Limits, Continuity, and Differentiability 71

3.1 Limit of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.1.1 Limit Point of a Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.1.2 Sequential Characterization of Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.1.3 Properties of Limits of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.1.4 One-Sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.1.5 Infinite Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.1.6 Limits at Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.1.7 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.2 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.2.1 Basic Properties of Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.2.2 Squeeze Rule and Examples of Continuous Functions . . 88
3.2.3 Uniform Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.2.4 Piecewise Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.2.5 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.3 Differentiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.3.1 Basic Properties of Differentiable Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.3.2 Smooth and Piecewise Smooth Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.3.3 L’Hôpital’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.3.4 Limit of a Sequence from a Continuous Function . . . . . . 108
3.3.5 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

4 Applications of Differentiability 115

4.1 Basic Concepts of Injectivity and Inverses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.1.1 Basic Issues about Inverses on R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.1.2 Further Understanding of Inverse Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.1.3 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.2 Differentiability from the Geometric View Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.2.1 Local Extremum Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.2.2 Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . 127
4.2.3 L’Hôpital’s Rule: Another Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.2.4 Second-Derivative Test and Concavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.2.5 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

5 Series: Convergence and Divergence 147

5.1 Infinite Series of Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.1.1 Geometric Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.1.2 Decimal Representation of Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.1.3 The Irrationality of e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.1.4 Telescoping Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.1.5 Operations and Convergence Criteria in Series . . . . . . . . 159
5.1.6 Absolutely and Conditionally Convergent Series . . . . . . . 161
5.1.7 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.2 Convergence and Divergence Tests for Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.2.1 Basic Divergence Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
 Contents XIII

5.2.2 Tests for Series of Nonnegative Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

5.2.3 Abel–Pringsheim Divergence Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.2.4 Direct Comparison Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.2.5 Limit Comparison Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
5.2.6 Cauchy’s Condensation Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
5.2.7 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
5.3 Alternating Series and Conditional Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
5.3.1 Alternating Series Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
5.3.2 Rearrangement of Terms in a Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
5.3.3 Riemann’s Theorem on Conditionally Convergent
Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
5.3.4 Dirichlet Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
5.3.5 Cauchy Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
5.3.6 (C, 1) Summability of Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
5.3.7 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

6 Definite and Indefinite Integrals 209

6.1 Definition and Basic Properties of Riemann Integrals . . . . . . . . . 209
6.1.1 Darboux Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
6.1.2 Basic Properties of Upper and Lower Sums . . . . . . . . . . . 216
6.1.3 Criteria for Integrability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
6.1.4 Basic Examples of Integrable Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
6.1.5 Integrability of Monotone/Continuous Functions . . . . . . 230
6.1.6 Basic Properties of Definite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
6.1.7 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
6.2 Fundamental Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
6.2.1 The Fundamental Theorems of Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
6.2.2 The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
6.2.3 Average Value of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
6.2.4 The Logarithmic and Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . 260
6.2.5 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

7 Improper Integrals and Applications of Riemann

Integrals 271
7.1 Improper Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
7.1.1 Improper Integrals over an Unbounded Interval . . . . . . . 272
7.1.2 Improper Integrals of Unbounded Functions . . . . . . . . . . 280
7.1.3 The Gamma and Beta Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
7.1.4 Wallis’s Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
7.1.5 The Integral Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
7.1.6 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
7.2 Applications of the Riemann Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
7.2.1 Area in Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
7.2.2 Arc Length of a Plane Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
7.2.3 Arc Length for Parameterized Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
XIV Contents

7.2.4 Arc Length of Polar Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

7.2.5 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

8 Power Series 331

8.1 The Ratio Test and the Root Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
8.1.1 The Ratio Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
8.1.2 The Root Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
8.1.3 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
8.2 Basic Issues around the Ratio and Root Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
8.2.1 Convergence of Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
8.2.2 Radius of Convergence of Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
8.2.3 Methods for Finding the Radius of Convergence . . . . . . . 347
8.2.4 Uniqueness Theorem for Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
8.2.5 Real Analytic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
8.2.6 The Exponential Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
8.2.7 Taylor’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
8.2.8 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366

9 Uniform Convergence of Sequences of Functions 371

9.1 Pointwise and Uniform Convergence of Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
9.1.1 Definitions and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
9.1.2 Uniform Convergence and Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
9.1.3 Interchange of Limit and Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
9.1.4 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
9.2 Uniform Convergence of Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
9.2.1 Two Tests for Uniform Convergence of Series . . . . . . . . . 396
9.2.2 Interchange of Summation and Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
9.2.3 Interchange of Limit and Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
9.2.4 The Weierstrass Approximation Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
9.2.5 Abel’s Limit Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
9.2.6 Abel’s Summability of Series and Tauber’s
First Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
9.2.7 (C, α) Summable Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
9.2.8 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423

10 Fourier Series and Applications 429

10.1 A Basic Issue in Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
10.1.1 Periodic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
10.1.2 Trigonometric Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
10.1.3 The Space E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
10.1.4 Basic Results on Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
10.1.5 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
10.2 Convergence of Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
10.2.1 Statement of Dirichlet’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
10.2.2 Fourier Series of Functions with an Arbitrary Period . . . 448
 Contents XV

10.2.3 Change of Interval and Half-Range Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449

10.2.4 Issues Concerning Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
10.2.5 Dirichlet’s Kernel and Its Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
10.2.6 Two Versions of Dirichlet’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
10.2.7 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464

11 Functions of Bounded Variation and Riemann–Stieltjes

Integrals 469
11.1 Functions of Bounded Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
11.1.1 Sufficient Conditions for Functions of Bounded
Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
11.1.2 Basic Properties of Functions of Bounded Variation . . . . 474
11.1.3 Characterization of Functions of Bounded Variation . . . 479
11.1.4 Bounded Variation and Absolute Continuity . . . . . . . . . . 483
11.1.5 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
11.2 Stieltjes Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
11.2.1 The Darboux–Stieltjes Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
11.2.2 The Riemann–Stieltjes Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
11.2.3 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504

References for Further Reading 507

Index of Notation 509

Appendix A: Hints for Selected Questions and Exercises 513

Index 565
1
The Real Number System

This chapter consists of reference material with which the reader should be
familiar. We present it here both to refresh the reader’s memory and to have
them available for reference. In Section 1.1, we begin by recalling elementary
properties of sets, in particular the set of rational numbers and their deci-
mal representations. Then we proceed to introduce the irrational numbers. In
Section 1.2, we briefly discuss the notion of supremum and infimum and state
the completeness axiom for the set of real numbers. We introduce the concept
of one-to-one, onto, and bijective mappings, as well as that of equivalent sets.

1.1 Sets and Functions

1.1.1 Review of Sets

The notion of a set is one of the most basic concepts in all of mathemat-
ics. We begin our discussion with some set-theoretic terminology and a few
facts from the algebra of sets. A set is a collection of well-defined objects
(e.g., numbers, vectors, functions) and is usually designated by a capital let-
ter A, B, C, . . . , X, Y, Z. If A is a set, we write a ∈ A to express “a is an
element (or member) of A” or “a belongs to A.” Likewise, the expression
a∈ / A means “a is not an element of A” or “a does not belong to A.” For
instance, A = {a, b} means that A consists of a and b, while the set A = {a}
consists of a alone. We use the symbol “∅” to denote the empty set, that is,
the set with no elements.
If B is also a set and every element of B is also an element of A, then we
say that B is a subset of A or that B is contained in A, and we write B ⊂ A.
We also say that A contains B and write A ⊃ B. That is,1

A ⊃ B ⇐⇒ B ⊂ A ⇐⇒ a ∈ B implies that a ∈ A.

1
The symbol ⇐⇒ and the word “iff” both mean “if and only if.”

S. Ponnusamy, Foundations of Mathematical Analysis, 1

DOI 10.1007/978-0-8176-8292-7 1,
© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012
2 1 The Real Number System

Clearly, every set is a subset of itself, and therefore to distinguish subsets that
do not coincide with the set in question, we say that A is a proper subset of
B if A ⊂ B and in addition, B also contains at least one element that does
not belong to A. We express this by the symbol A  B, a proper subset A of
B. Since A ⊂ A, it follows that for any two sets A and B, we have
A = B ⇐⇒ B ⊂ A and A ⊂ B.
In this case, we say that the two sets A and B are equal. Thus, in order to
prove that the sets A and B are equal, we may show that A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A.
When A is not a subset of B, then we indicate this by the notation
A ⊂ B,
meaning that there is at least one element a ∈ A such that a ∈ / B. For every
A ⊂ X, the complement of A, relative to X, is the set of all x ∈ X such that
x∈/ A. We shall use the notation
Ac = X \A = {x : x ∈ X and x ∈
/ A}.
The complement X c of X itself is the empty set ∅. Also, ∅c = X.
We often use the symbol := to mean that the symbol on the left is defined
by the expression on the right. For instance,
N := {1, 2, . . .}, the set of natural numbers.
A set can be defined by listing its elements or by specifying a property that
determines the elements in the set. For instance,
A = {2n : n ∈ N}.
That is, A = {x : P (x)} represents the set A of all elements x such that “the
property P (x) is true.” Also, B = {x ∈ A : Q(x)} represents the subset of A
for which the “property Q(x)” holds. For instance,
B = {1, 3} or A = {x : x ∈ N, 2x3 − 9x2 + 10x − 3 = 0}.
For a given set A, the power set of A, denoted by P(A), is defined to be
the set of all subsets of A:
P(A) = {B : B ⊂ A}.
If A and B are sets, then their union, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set of all
elements that are elements of either A or B:
A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.
Clearly A ∪ B = B ∪ A. The intersection of the sets A and B, denoted by
A ∩ B, is the set consisting of elements that belong to both A and B:
A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.
Note that A \B is also used for A ∩ B c . Two sets are said to be disjoint if
their intersection is the empty set. The notion of intersection and union can
 1.1 Sets and Functions 3

be extended to larger collections of sets. For instance, if Λ is an indexing set

such as N, then 
Ai = {x : x ∈ Ai for some i ∈ Λ}
i∈Λ

and 
Ai = {x : x ∈ Ai for every i ∈ Λ}.
i∈Λ

A collection of sets {Ai : i ∈ Λ} is said to be pairwise disjoint if

Ai ∩ Aj = ∅ for i, j ∈ Λ, i = j.
We do not include here basic set-theoretic properties, since these should be
familiar from high-school mathematics.
We now list Giuseppe Peano’s (1858–1932) five axioms for N:
• 1 ∈ N.
• Each n ∈ N has a successor, namely n + 1 (sometimes designated by n ).
• 1 is not the successor of any n ∈ N.
• If m and n in N have the same successor, then m = n, i.e., two distinct
elements in N cannot have the same successor.
• Suppose A ⊂ N. Then A = N if the following two conditions are satisfied:
(i) 1 ∈ A.
(ii) If n ∈ A, then n + 1 ∈ A.
The last axiom is the basis for the principle of mathematical induction, and
so it is called the induction axiom.
The principle of mathematical induction reads as follows.
Theorem 1.1 (Principle of mathematical induction). Suppose that P (n)
is a statement concerning n ∈ N. If P (1) is true and if P (k + 1) is true when-
ever P (k) is true, then P (n) is true for all n ≥ 1.
As an illustration of this theorem, the following can easily be proved:
n
 n(n + 1)
(a) k = for all n ≥ 1.
2
k=1
n
 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
(b) k2 = .
6
k=1
n
n2 (n + 1)2
(c) k3 = .
4
k=1
n+1
(d) (n + 2)!
√ >n 2 √ all n ≥ 1.
for
(e) (3 + 5) + (3 − 5)n is an even integer for n ≥ 1 (use the identity
ak+1 + bk+1 = (ak + bk )(a + b) − (ak−1 + bk−1 )ab).
We shall now begin to introduce the set Q of rational numbers and the set
R of real numbers.
4 1 The Real Number System

1.1.2 The Rational Numbers

A quotient of integers m/n (n = 0) is called a rational number. We assume
that readers are familiar with the properties of the following basic sets:
Z := {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . .} the set of integers,
m 
Q := : m ∈ Z, n ∈ N the set of rational numbers.
n
Clearly, N  Z  Q. We remark that the representation of a rational number
as a ratio of integers is not unique; for instance,
1 2 3
= = = ··· .
2 4 6
However, in the form m/n, if we assume that m and n have no common factor
greater than 1, then the representation is unique. We frequently represent
positive rational numbers in their decimal expansions. By a (positive) decimal
fraction, we mean a number
0 · a1 a2 a3 . . . ,
where each ak , k ≥ 1, is an integer with ak ∈ {0, 1, 2, . . . , 9}. Here the ten
integer values are called digits. When a decimal terminates, it means
n
 ak
0 · a 1 a 2 a 3 . . . an = ,
10k
k=1

which is clearly a positive rational number. Thus, Q contains all terminating

decimals such as
123 789
−0.123 = − , 0.789 = ,....
1000 1000
More generally, a decimal is an expression of the form
c0 · a0 a1 . . . ,
where c0 ∈ Z and ak ∈ {0, 1, 2, . . . , 9}, k = 1, 2, . . ..
Thus, there are two types of decimals, namely terminating (finite) and
nonterminating (infinite). For instance, applying long division to 1/3 and 3/7
gives
1 3
= 0.333 . . . and = 0.428571428 . . .,
3 7
respectively. These nonterminating decimals are repeating and so may be ab-
breviated as
0.333 . . . = 0.3 and 0.428571428 . . . = 0.428571,
respectively. Thus, we formulate the following definition (omitting some tech-
nical details).
Definition 1.2. A rational number is a number whose decimal expansion ei-
ther terminates after a finite number of places or repeats.
 1.1 Sets and Functions 5

y y
y = x2 − 2
(0,1)

1 x x
x such that
x such that x2 = 2
O 1 (1,0) x x2 = 2 (−2, 0)

Fig. 1.1. The unit square. Fig. 1.2. Graph of y = x2 − 2.

1.1.3 The Irrational Numbers

Although the set Q of rational numbers is a nice algebraic system, it is not

adequate for describing many quantities such as lengths, areas, and volumes
that occur in geometry. For example, what is the length of the diagonal in a
square of unit length? (See Figure 1.1.)
What is the side length of a square with area 2? 3? 5? 7? In other words,
is there a rational number x such that

x2 = 2 or x2 = 3 or x2 = 5 or x2 = 7?

What is the area of the closed unit disk x2 + y 2 ≤ 1?

Theorem 1.3. There is no rational number x such that x2 = 2.

Proof. Suppose for a contradiction that x = m/n, where m and n have no

common factors. Then
 m 2
= 2, i.e., m2 = 2n2 ,
n
where m ∈ Z and n ∈ N have no common factors other than 1. This shows
that m2 is even, and so is m (if m were odd, then m2 would be odd). Hence,
there exists k ∈ Z such that m = 2k. This gives

(2k)2 = 2n2 or 2k 2 = n2 ,

and therefore n is also even. The last statement contradicts our assumption
that m and n have no common factor other than 1.
2
√ that the solution of x − 2 = 0 is not a rational number.
It turns out, then,
We denote it by 2 and call it an irrational number.
If we draw the graph of y = x2 − 2 (see Figure 1.2), the value of x at
which the graph crosses the y-axis is thus a “new type” of number x, which
satisfies the equation x2 − 2 = 0. It is called an irrational number (see
Questions 1.11(7)).
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