LEXICAL CATEGORIES

Tuesday, October 14, 2025 7:28 AM

I. Lexical Categories
Words are grouped into categories based on their grammatical function and meaning.
These categories are divided into Content Words (major or open classes) and Function Words
(minor or closed classes).
Together, they form the foundation of the English lexicon.

A. Content Words (Open Classes)

These are the core meaning-bearing elements of language. They can easily expand as new words are
created.
1. Nouns
• Definition: Words that name people, places, objects, or abstract concepts.
• Examples: student, ocean, courage, table
• Types:
○ Proper nouns — specific names (Maria, Asia)
○ Common nouns — general terms (city, boy)
○ Concrete nouns — things perceivable by senses (chair, apple)
○ Abstract nouns — ideas or qualities (freedom, honesty)
○ Countable nouns — have singular/plural forms (book/books)
○ Uncountable nouns — cannot be counted (water, sand)
Sentence Example:
Students read books in the library.
→ students and books are nouns naming people and objects.

2. Verbs
• Definition: Words expressing action, occurrence, or state of being.
• Examples: run, speak, exist, is, become
• Types:
○ Action verbs — express physical or mental action (write, jump, think)
○ Linking verbs — connect the subject to a complement (be, seem, appear)
○ Auxiliary verbs — help form tenses (is, have, do)
○ Modal verbs — express ability, possibility, or necessity (can, may, must)
Sentence Example:
She runs every morning.
→ runs is a verb showing action.

3. Adjectives
• Definition: Words describing or qualifying nouns.
• Examples: beautiful, tall, red, ancient
• Functions:
○ Attributive: placed before a noun (a red apple)
○ Predicative: follows a linking verb (The apple is red.)
• Comparison: adjectives can show degree (big, bigger, biggest).
Sentence Example:
The smart student answered quickly.
→ smart describes the noun student.

4. Adverbs
• Definition: Words modifying verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or entire clauses.
• Examples: quickly, very, well, yesterday
• Types:
Manner: how (e.g., carefully)

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 ○ Manner: how (e.g., carefully)
○ Place: where (e.g., here, outside)
○ Time: when (e.g., today, soon)
○ Frequency: how often (e.g., always, rarely)
○ Degree: intensity (e.g., very, quite)
Sentence Example:
He spoke softly to his child.
→ softly modifies the verb spoke.

B. Function Words (Closed Classes)

These words have little lexical meaning but serve to express grammatical relationships. They rarely
admit new members.
1. Pronouns
• Definition: Replace nouns to avoid repetition.
• Examples: I, she, they, who, someone
• Types:
○ Personal (I, you, he, she, it, we, they)
○ Reflexive (myself, yourself)
○ Demonstrative (this, that, these, those)
○ Interrogative (who, what, which)
○ Relative (who, which, that)
○ Indefinite (someone, anyone, everything)
○ Reciprocal (each other, one another)
Sentence Example:
She helped him with his project.
→ she and him are pronouns replacing nouns.

2. Prepositions
• Definition: Show the relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and another element in the
sentence — usually time, place, or direction.
• Examples: in, on, at, by, to, from, with, under, between
Sentence Example:
The cat is under the table.
→ under shows location.

3. Conjunctions
• Definition: Connect words, phrases, or clauses.
• Examples: and, but, because, although
• Types:
○ Coordinating: join equal elements (and, or, but, nor, yet, so, for)
○ Subordinating: link dependent clauses (because, although, if, when)
○ Correlative: paired conjunctions (either...or, neither...nor)
Sentence Example:
He studied hard and passed the exam.

4. Determiners
• Definition: Words placed before nouns to define reference or quantity.
• Examples: the, a, an, my, some, this
• Types:
○ Articles: a, an, the
○ Demonstratives: this, that, these, those
○ Possessives: my, your, his, her, our, their
○ Quantifiers: some, many, few, several
○ Numerals: one, two, first, second
Sentence Example:
Those three apples are mine.

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5. Interjections
• Definition: Words expressing emotion, reaction, or sudden feeling.
• Examples: oh!, wow!, ouch!, hey!
Sentence Example:
Wow! That’s amazing.

6. Particles
• Definition: Short function words that combine with verbs to create new meanings (forming
phrasal verbs).
• Examples: up (pick up), out (find out), off (turn off)
Sentence Example:
She looked up the word in the dictionary.

Summary: Content vs. Function Words

Type Role Examples
Content Carry lexical meaning Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs
Words
Function Express grammatical Pronouns, Prepositions, Conjunctions, Determiners,
Words relationships Particles, Interjections

Example Sentence Breakdown:

The small boy quickly ran to school.
• Content words: boy, quickly, ran, school
• Function words: the, small, to

II. Morphemes and Word Formation

Morphology is the study of how words are formed and structured from smaller meaningful units
called morphemes.
A morpheme is the smallest grammatical unit that carries meaning.

A. Types of Morphemes
1. Free Morphemes
○ Can stand alone as words.
○ Examples: book, run, happy
2. Bound Morphemes
○ Cannot stand alone; must attach to a base.
○ Examples: -s, -ed, un-, -ness
3. Lexical Morphemes
○ Carry main meaning; belong to content words.
○ Examples: cat, run, big
4. Functional Morphemes
○ Express grammatical relationships; often found in function words.
○ Examples: and, the, in, -ed, -s

B. Affixation
Affixation is the process of adding bound morphemes to roots or bases to form new words or
meanings.
• Prefix: added to the beginning (*un-*happy, *re-*write)
• Suffix: added to the end (teach-er, hope-ful)
• Infix: inserted within a word (rare in English, common in Tagalog)
• Circumfix: added around a base (rare in English, common in German)

C. Inflectional Morphology
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C. Inflectional Morphology
Inflection changes a word’s grammatical form but not its meaning or class.
Used for number, gender, case, tense, and aspect.
• Number: book → books
• Gender: actor → actress
• Case: he → him → his
• Tense: walk → walked
• Aspect: is walking, has walked

D. Derivational Morphology
Derivation creates new words by changing the meaning or grammatical category.
• Class-changing: beauty (noun) → beautiful (adjective)
• Class-maintaining: happy → unhappiness
Examples:
• teach → teacher (verb → noun)
• kind → unkind (same class, opposite meaning)

E. Word-Formation Processes
1. Compounding: joining two free morphemes (notebook, classroom)
2. Conversion (Zero Derivation): changing word class without adding affix (to email → an email)
3. Clipping: shortening (advertisement → ad)
4. Blending: combining parts (smoke + fog → smog)
5. Acronyms/Initialisms: forming from initials (NASA, FBI)
6. Reduplication: repetition for emphasis (bye-bye, go-go)

III. Syntax and Sentence Structure

Syntax is the branch of grammar that studies how words combine to form phrases, clauses, and
sentences.
It focuses on word order, relationships among sentence elements, and grammatical structure.
In English, syntax is especially important because word order determines meaning.

A. Sentence Elements
Every English sentence is built from basic elements that play specific grammatical and semantic
roles.
Understanding these elements helps identify how meaning is structured.

1. Subject
• Definition: The doer or topic of the sentence; what or whom the sentence is about.
• Usually a noun or pronoun, sometimes a whole phrase or clause.
• Examples:
○ The students study hard.
○ Reading books is enjoyable.
Note: In English, the subject typically comes before the verb.

2. Predicate
• Definition: The part of the sentence that tells something about the subject, usually
containing the verb and its complements.
• Examples:
○ The students study hard.
○ My brother is a doctor.
Predicate = verb + (object/complement/modifier)

3. Object
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3. Object
• Definition: The receiver of the action in a sentence (what or whom the action affects).
• Types:
○ Direct Object – receives the action directly (She kicked the ball.)
○ Indirect Object – benefits from or receives the direct object (She gave me a gift.)
Examples:
• He sent his friend a letter.
→ his friend = indirect object; a letter = direct object.

4. Complement
• Definition: A word or phrase that completes the meaning of a subject or object, often
following linking verbs.
• Types:
○ Subject Complement: describes or renames the subject (She is beautiful. / She is a
teacher.)
○ Object Complement: describes or renames the object (They elected him president.)

5. Modifier (Adjunct)
• Definition: Provides extra information about time, place, manner, or condition.
• Usually optional, often adverbs or prepositional phrases.
• Examples:
○ He sang beautifully. (manner)
○ We met in the park. (place)
○ Yesterday, she arrived early. (time)

B. Phrases
A phrase is a group of words that acts as a single part of speech but does not form a complete
thought (no subject–predicate combination).
Each type of phrase has a head word that determines its grammatical role.

1. Noun Phrase (NP)

• Head: a noun or pronoun.
• May include determiners and modifiers.
• Structure: [Determiner] + [Modifier] + [Head Noun]
• Examples:
○ The tall man
○ A beautiful garden in the city
Sentence Example:
The tall man waved to us.

2. Verb Phrase (VP)

• Head: a verb (may include auxiliaries or modifiers).
• Examples:
○ is running
○ has been waiting
○ will go soon
Sentence Example:
She has been studying all night.

3. Adjective Phrase (AdjP)

• Head: an adjective, possibly modified by adverbs or complements.
• Examples:
○ very intelligent
full of hope

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 ○ full of hope
Sentence Example:
He is very proud of his son.

4. Adverb Phrase (AdvP)

• Head: an adverb, possibly with intensifiers or modifiers.
• Examples:
○ quite slowly
○ very well indeed
Sentence Example:
She spoke quite clearly.

5. Prepositional Phrase (PP)

• Structure: Preposition + Noun Phrase (object of preposition)
• Examples:
○ in the morning
○ under the table
○ for a long time
Sentence Example:
They met at the bus stop.

6. Infinitive, Gerund, and Participial Phrases

• Infinitive Phrase: to + base verb + complements/modifiers
○ to read books regularly
○ to win the game easily
• Gerund Phrase: verb + -ing used as a noun
○ Reading novels improves vocabulary.
• Participial Phrase: verb form (-ing / -ed) used as adjective
○ Covered with snow, the mountain looked majestic.

C. Clauses
A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate.
Unlike a phrase, it can sometimes stand alone as a sentence.

1. Independent (Main) Clause

• Can stand alone and express a complete thought.
• Examples:
○ She smiled.
○ I went home because it was late. (I went home = main clause)

2. Dependent (Subordinate) Clause

• Cannot stand alone; depends on a main clause to complete meaning.
• Examples:
○ because it was late
○ when she arrived
○ if you study hard
Sentence Example:
We stayed inside because it was raining.

3. Types of Subordinate Clauses

• Relative Clause: modifies a noun; begins with who, which, that
○ The man who called is my uncle.
• Noun Clause: acts as a noun (subject or object)
What you said made me happy.

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 ○ What you said made me happy.
• Adverbial Clause: acts as an adverb, showing time, cause, condition, etc.
○ I’ll call you when I arrive.

D. Sentence Types (by Structure)

English sentences can be categorized by how many clauses they contain and how these clauses are
connected.

1. Simple Sentence
• Contains one independent clause only.
• Examples:
○ The child laughed.
○ She likes coffee.

2. Compound Sentence
• Contains two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or,
so).
• Examples:
○ I wanted to go, but it rained.
○ She studied hard, and she passed the test.

3. Complex Sentence
• Contains one independent clause + at least one dependent clause.
• Examples:
○ I left because I was tired.
○ When the bell rang, the students left.

4. Compound–Complex Sentence
• Contains two or more independent clauses + one or more dependent clauses.
• Example:
○ I was late, but I finished the exam because I studied well.

Sentence Structure Summary Table

Type Clause Composition Example
Simple 1 independent She smiled.
Compound 2+ independent I came, and I saw.
Complex 1 independent + 1 dependent She left because it rained.
Compound–Complex 2+ independent + 1+ dependent He stayed, but she left when it rained.

Summary of Syntax Concepts:

• Phrases lack a subject–predicate pair.
• Clauses have a subject–predicate pair.
• Sentences express a complete thought.
• Modifiers add detail; complements complete meaning.
• English follows S–V–O (Subject–Verb–Object) order in most sentences.

IV. Verbal Concepts and Systems

Verbs are the core of English sentences, expressing actions, occurrences, or states of being.
They determine the tense, aspect, voice, and mood of a sentence, and they also signal agreement
with the subject.
Because verbs control so many grammatical systems, understanding their structure and use is
essential for mastering English syntax.

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essential for mastering English syntax.

A. Verb Forms (Principal Parts)

Every verb has a set of basic forms called its principal parts. These are used to construct all tenses.
• 1. Base Form: The simplest form; used for infinitives and present tense (except 3rd person
singular).
○ go, eat, study
○ Example: I go to school every day.
• 2. -s Form (Third Person Singular Present): Used with he/she/it in present tense.
○ goes, eats, studies
○ Example: She eats breakfast early.
• 3. Past Form: Used for past tense. Regular verbs add -ed; irregular verbs change internally.
○ walked, sang, went
○ Example: They walked to the park.
• 4. Present Participle (-ing Form): Used for continuous tenses or as adjectives.
○ going, eating, reading
○ Example: He is reading a book.
• 5. Past Participle: Used for perfect tenses and passive voice.
○ walked, sung, gone
○ Example: She has gone home.

B. Voice
Voice shows whether the subject performs or receives the action of the verb.

1. Active Voice
• Definition: The subject performs the action.
• Structure: Subject + Verb + Object
• Example: The teacher explained the lesson.
Characteristics:
• Direct and concise.
• Common in everyday and academic writing.

2. Passive Voice
• Definition: The subject receives the action.
• Structure: Subject + Auxiliary be + Past Participle (+ by + Agent)
• Example: The lesson was explained by the teacher.
Notes:
• Focuses on the action or receiver rather than the doer.
• Often used when the agent is unknown or unimportant.
Transformation Example:
• Active: The chef cooked the meal.
• Passive: The meal was cooked (by the chef).

C. Mood
Mood expresses the speaker’s attitude toward the action or state described by the verb.

1. Indicative Mood
• Definition: States facts or asks questions.
• Example: She works every day. / Does she work every day?

2. Imperative Mood
• Definition: Expresses commands, requests, or instructions.
• Example: Please close the door. / Sit down.

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3. Subjunctive Mood
• Definition: Expresses hypothetical, unreal, or desired situations.
• Examples:
○ If I were rich, I would travel the world.
○ It is important that he be on time.

D. Transitivity
Verbs differ in how many objects or complements they require to complete their meaning.

1. Transitive Verbs
• Require a direct object to complete meaning.
• Example: She bought a car. (a car = direct object)

2. Intransitive Verbs
• Do not take a direct object; the action stands alone.
• Example: He sleeps. / They arrived late.

3. Ditransitive Verbs
• Take two objects: one indirect, one direct.
• Example: She gave her friend a gift.
○ her friend = indirect object
○ a gift = direct object

E. Finite and Non-Finite Verbs

1. Finite Verbs
• Show tense, number, and agreement with the subject.
• Form the main verb of a clause.
• Examples:
○ She writes daily.
○ They were running.

2. Non-Finite Verbs
• Do not show tense or agreement; cannot stand alone as the main verb.
• Include infinitives, gerunds, and participles.
• Examples:
○ To write is enjoyable. (infinitive)
○ Writing improves skill. (gerund)
○ Written by a master, the book became famous. (participle)

F. Auxiliary Verbs
Auxiliaries are helping verbs that accompany main verbs to form tenses, voices, or moods.

1. Primary Auxiliaries
• Be, Have, Do
• Functions:
○ Be → forms continuous tenses and passive voice (is running, was built)
○ Have → forms perfect tenses (has eaten, had gone)
○ Do → used for negatives, questions, and emphasis (do not go, Did you see?)

2. Modal Auxiliaries
• Definition: Express modality — possibility, necessity, permission, or ability.

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 • Definition: Express modality — possibility, necessity, permission, or ability.
• Examples: can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must
• Examples in Sentences:
○ She can swim fast. (ability)
○ You must study hard. (necessity)
○ It may rain later. (possibility)

3. Semi- or Marginal Modals

• Definition: Verbs or expressions similar to modals but with auxiliary-like behavior.
• Examples: need to, have to, ought to, used to, dare to
• Examples in Sentences:
○ You have to attend the meeting.
○ He used to play football.

Summary of Auxiliary Functions

Function Auxiliary Example
Continuous be She is working.
Perfect have He has finished.
Passive be + past participle The task was completed.
Questions/Negatives do Do you like it? / I don’t like it.
Modality can, must, should You should rest.

Summary of Verb System Concepts

• Verbs express action, state, or condition.
• Verb forms show tense, aspect, voice, and agreement.
• Active = subject acts; Passive = subject receives.
• Mood indicates speaker’s attitude.
• Transitivity defines how many objects follow the verb.
• Finite verbs carry tense; non-finite do not.
• Auxiliaries support the main verb in forming complex verb phrases.

V. Tense, Aspect, and Time

Tense and aspect are grammatical systems that describe the relationship between time and the
action or state expressed by the verb.
While time refers to when something happens (past, present, future), tense and aspect describe
how the verb grammatically presents that time — whether the action is complete, ongoing,
habitual, or repeated.

A. Distinction Between Time, Tense, and Aspect

1. Time
• Definition: The actual chronological point of the event — past, present, or future.
• Example: Yesterday (past), now (present), tomorrow (future).
2. Tense
• Definition: The grammatical marking on the verb that shows when the action occurs relative
to the present.
• In English, there are only two primary tenses: present and past.
• Example:
○ Present: She walks.
○ Past: She walked.
3. Aspect
• Definition: The way the verb expresses the flow or completion of time — whether the action

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 • Definition: The way the verb expresses the flow or completion of time — whether the action
is completed, in progress, or repeated.
• Main Aspects in English:
○ Simple (no special emphasis on duration or completion)
○ Progressive (Continuous) (action in progress)
○ Perfect (completed or linked to a later time)
○ Perfect Progressive (continuous and completed action)

B. The Twelve Tense–Aspect Combinations

English has 12 major tense–aspect combinations, formed by combining tense (present, past,
future) and aspect (simple, progressive, perfect, perfect progressive).

1. Present Time
Aspect Structure Example Use
Simple Present base / base + -s She works every day. Habit, fact, general truth
Present Progressive am / is / are + -ing She is working now. Action happening at the moment
Present Perfect has / have + past She has worked here Action completed with relevance
participle for years. to present
Present Perfect has / have + been She has been working Ongoing action started in the
Progressive + -ing all day. past and continuing

2. Past Time
Aspect Structure Example Use
Simple Past past form She worked yesterday. Completed action in the past
Past Progressive was / were + - She was working when I Ongoing past action interrupted
ing arrived. by another event
Past Perfect had + past She had worked before I Action completed before
participle came. another past action
Past Perfect had + been + - She had been working all day Continuous action up to a past
Progressive ing before resting. point

3. Future Time
Aspect Structure Example Use
Simple Future will / shall + base She will work tomorrow. Predicted or spontaneous
future action
Future will be + -ing She will be working at 5 p.m. Ongoing future action at a
Progressive specific time
Future Perfect will have + past She will have finished by noon. Action completed before a
participle future point
Future Perfect will have been + - She will have been working for Continuous action leading
Progressive ing five hours by noon. up to a future point

C. Future Time Expressions (Beyond “Will”)

Unlike other languages, English has no true future tense; it expresses future meaning using several
constructions.
1. Will / Shall + Base Verb
• Standard way to express future prediction or decision.
• I will call you later.

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 • I will call you later.
2. Be Going To + Base Verb
• Used for planned or intended actions.
• I’m going to study tonight.
3. Present Progressive (for Arranged Future)
• Used for fixed arrangements.
• We are meeting the manager tomorrow.
4. Simple Present (for Scheduled Future)
• Used with timetables or official programs.
• The train leaves at 7:00 p.m.

D. Aspectual Distinctions
Aspect gives depth and texture to time. It describes whether the action is ongoing, completed, or
habitual.

1. Simple Aspect
• Definition: Expresses facts, habits, or general truths without focusing on duration or
completion.
• Examples:
○ I eat breakfast every morning.
○ Water boils at 100°C.

2. Progressive (Continuous) Aspect

• Definition: Emphasizes that an action is in progress or temporary.
• Structure: be + -ing
• Examples:
○ She is studying now.
○ They were playing when it rained.

3. Perfect Aspect
• Definition: Shows completion or connection between two points in time.
• Structure: have + past participle
• Examples:
○ I have finished my homework.
○ She had left before we arrived.

4. Perfect Progressive Aspect

• Definition: Combines continuity and completion — an action began in the past, continued for
some time, and is still relevant.
• Structure: have + been + -ing
• Examples:
○ I have been reading for two hours.
○ He had been working all night.

5. Habitual Aspect
• Definition: Describes repeated or habitual actions.
• Expressed using used to, would, or simple present.
• Examples:
○ I used to live in London.
○ She would walk to school every day.
○ He goes jogging every morning.

Aspect Summary Chart

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Aspect Summary Chart
Aspect Key Marker Focus Example
Simple none Fact or habit She writes daily.
Progressive be + -ing Ongoing action She is writing.
Perfect have + past participle Completed or prior action She has written.
Perfect Progressive have + been + -ing Continuous up to a point She has been writing.

Summary of Tense, Aspect, and Time Concepts

• Time is real-world chronology; tense is grammatical marking.
• English tenses come in 12 combinations, showing both time and aspect.
• Aspect expresses whether the action is simple, ongoing, completed, or continuous and
completed.
• Future meaning can be expressed through will, be going to, present progressive, or simple
present.
• Understanding tense and aspect is key to expressing time relationships clearly in English.

VI. Participles and Non-Finite Verb Forms

Non-finite verb forms are verb forms that do not show tense, person, or number and cannot
function as the main verb in a clause.
They are used to form verb phrases, modifiers, or noun equivalents and contribute to sentence
variety and complexity.
There are three major types of non-finite verb forms: participles, infinitives, and gerunds.

A. Participles
A participle is a verbal adjective — it is formed from a verb but functions as an adjective, describing
a noun or pronoun.
Participles can also form complex verb tenses and phrases.
There are three types of participles: present, past, and perfect.

1. Present Participle (-ing form)

• Form: base verb + -ing
○ running, eating, singing, playing
• Functions:
○ Forms progressive tenses (is running, was singing, will be going).
○ Acts as an adjective (a running engine, a crying baby).
○ Begins participial phrases modifying nouns.
• Examples:
○ The man running down the street is my teacher.
○ She kept smiling despite the rain.
• Note: Present participles show ongoing or continuous action when used in verb phrases.

2. Past Participle (-ed or irregular form)

• Form: base verb + -ed (for regular verbs) or irregular form (for irregular verbs).
○ walked, studied, broken, written, gone
• Functions:
○ Forms perfect tenses (has finished, had seen).
○ Forms passive voice (was built, is taken).
○ Acts as an adjective (a broken window, tired students).
• Examples:
○ The cake was baked by my mother.
○ The broken vase lay on the floor.
• Note: Past participles express completed actions or states resulting from prior actions.

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3. Perfect Participle
• Form: having + past participle
○ having finished, having eaten, having studied
• Functions:
○ Shows that one action was completed before another.
○ Used to form participial phrases indicating cause, time, or condition.
• Examples:
○ Having finished the task, she went home.
○ Having studied well, he passed the exam easily.

4. Participial Phrases
A participial phrase includes a participle and its modifiers or complements.
It functions as a single adjective in the sentence.
• Examples:
○ Exhausted from the trip, they went straight to bed.
○ Built in the 18th century, the church remains a landmark.
Rule: Participial phrases should refer clearly to the noun they modify to avoid dangling participles.

B. Infinitives
An infinitive is the base form of a verb, often preceded by to.
It can function as a noun, adjective, or adverb.

1. Form
• to + base verb
○ to eat, to study, to learn, to write

2. Functions and Examples

• As Noun (subject or object):
○ To read is enjoyable.
○ She likes to dance.
• As Adjective (modifies a noun):
○ This is the best time to travel.
○ He needs a book to read.
• As Adverb (explains reason or purpose):
○ She came to help.
○ He studied hard to pass the exam.

3. Bare Infinitive (without “to”)

• Used after certain modal verbs, causative verbs, and perception verbs.
• Examples:
○ You must go now. (modal)
○ I saw him leave the room. (perception)
○ Let him speak. (causative)

4. Split Infinitives
• Occur when an adverb separates to and the verb.
• Though sometimes criticized, it is now grammatically acceptable for clarity or emphasis.
• Example: to boldly go where no one has gone before.

C. Gerunds
A gerund is the -ing form of a verb used as a noun.
Gerunds can function as subjects, objects, or complements in sentences.

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Gerunds can function as subjects, objects, or complements in sentences.

1. Form
• base verb + -ing
○ reading, swimming, running, writing

2. Functions and Examples

• As Subject:
○ Reading improves vocabulary.
○ Swimming is good exercise.
• As Object:
○ She enjoys dancing.
○ They suggested meeting earlier.
• As Complement:
○ His hobby is collecting stamps.
○ What I love most is teaching.

3. Gerund Phrases
A gerund phrase includes a gerund and any modifiers or objects.
It functions as a noun phrase.
• Examples:
○ Eating too much sugar causes health problems.
○ Watching movies at night helps me relax.

4. Difference Between Gerund and Present Participle

Feature Gerund Present Participle
Function Noun Adjective / Verb part
Example Swimming is fun. The swimming boy won the race.

D. Summary of Non-Finite Verb Forms

Form Structure Function Example
Present base + -ing Adjective / Progressive The crying child needs help.
Participle tenses
Past Participle base + -ed / irregular Adjective / Perfect / The broken vase was
Passive expensive.
Perfect having + past Expresses prior action Having studied, she passed.
Participle participle
Infinitive to + base verb Noun / Adj / Adv To learn is important.
Gerund base + -ing Noun Reading improves memory.

Summary of Key Ideas

• Non-finite verbs do not show tense or subject agreement.
• Participles function as adjectives; gerunds act as nouns; infinitives can act as nouns,
adjectives, or adverbs.
• Present participles show ongoing action, past participles show completed action.
• Perfect participles express prior or completed action relative to another event.
• Mastery of non-finites allows greater sentence variety and sophistication.

VII. Agreement and Concord

Agreement (also called concord) is the grammatical relationship in which different parts of a
sentence match in form — usually in number, person, gender, and case — to ensure grammatical

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sentence match in form — usually in number, person, gender, and case — to ensure grammatical
consistency and clarity.
It reflects the harmony between sentence elements, particularly between the subject and the verb,
or a pronoun and its antecedent.

A. Subject–Verb Agreement
Definition
Subject–verb agreement means that the verb must agree with its subject in number
(singular/plural) and person (first, second, third).
Rules and Examples
1. Singular subject → singular verb; plural subject → plural verb
○ She writes every day.
○ They write every day.
2. When two subjects are joined by “and,” use a plural verb
○ John and Mary are studying.
Exception: If the two nouns refer to the same person or idea, use a singular verb.
○ Bread and butter is my favorite breakfast.
3. When two subjects are joined by “or” / “nor,” the verb agrees with the nearest subject
○ Either the teacher or the students are coming.
○ Either the students or the teacher is coming.
4. Collective nouns (group, team, class, family, audience)
○ Treated as singular if the group acts as one unit:
The team wins every match.
○ Treated as plural if members act individually:
The team are arguing among themselves.
5. Indefinite pronouns
○ Always singular: Everyone, each, someone, anybody, nothing, etc.
Everyone loves music.
○ Always plural: few, many, several, both
Few know the answer.
○ Singular or plural (depending on meaning): all, some, none, most
All of the cake is gone. / All of the cookies are gone.
6. Subjects separated by phrases or clauses
○ Ignore intervening words; match verb to the real subject.
The bouquet of roses is lovely.
7. Titles, names, and quotations
○ Take singular verbs.
“War and Peace” is a long novel.
8. Plural nouns with singular meaning
○ Mathematics is difficult.
○ News is spreading fast.

B. Pronoun–Antecedent Agreement
Definition
A pronoun must agree with its antecedent (the word it replaces) in number, gender, and person.
Rules and Examples
1. Number Agreement
○ The boy lost his pencil. (singular)
○ The boys lost their pencils. (plural)
2. Gender Agreement
○ Mary said she was tired.
○ John said he was tired.
3. Indefinite Antecedents
○ When the gender is unknown, use they/their (now accepted as singular gender-neutral).
Someone forgot their bag.

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 Someone forgot their bag.
4. Compound Antecedents
○ Mary and John said they were ready.
○ Each boy and each girl brought his or her book.
5. Collective Nouns
○ The team celebrated its victory.
○ The jury took their seats. (acting as individuals)

C. Tense Consistency (Sequence of Tenses)

Definition
Tense consistency means that verb tenses within a sentence or paragraph must logically reflect the
time relationship of events.
This is crucial in complex sentences and reported speech.
Rules and Examples
1. Maintain the same tense for actions happening in the same time frame.
○ Correct: She opened the door and looked outside.
○ Incorrect: She opens the door and looked outside.
2. Shift tenses only when the time of action changes.
○ He said that he was tired. (past → past)
○ He says that he is tired. (present → present)
3. In reported speech, the verb usually shifts one tense back.
○ Direct: She says, “I am happy.”
○ Reported: She said that she was happy.
4. Past perfect is used to show an action completed before another past action.
○ She had eaten before they arrived.
5. In conditionals, sequence matters:
○ If I study, I will pass. (real condition)
○ If I studied, I would pass. (unreal present)
○ If I had studied, I would have passed. (unreal past)

D. Other Forms of Agreement

1. Subject–Complement Agreement
○ The complement must agree with the subject in number and reference.
His only problem is his parents.
His problems are his parents.
2. Determiner–Noun Agreement
○ Determiners must match nouns in number.
This book / These books
Much money / Many coins
3. Quantifier–Verb Agreement
○ Each of them is here.
○ A number of students are waiting.
○ The number of students is small.

E. Common Errors in Agreement

Error Correction Explanation
The list of items are The list of items is long. Subject is “list,” not “items.”
long.
Everyone must bring Everyone must bring his or her pencil. / Formal vs. gender-neutral use.
their pencil. Everyone must bring their pencil.
He don’t like it. He doesn’t like it. Verb must agree with 3rd-
person singular subject.
One of the boys have One of the boys has gone. Singular verb after “one of.”

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One of the boys have One of the boys has gone. Singular verb after “one of.”
gone.

F. Summary of Agreement Principles

• Agreement ensures grammatical harmony between related words.
• Subject–verb agreement aligns number and person.
• Pronoun–antecedent agreement aligns number, gender, and reference.
• Tense consistency maintains logical time relationships.
• Collective nouns, indefinite pronouns, and compound subjects often require special attention.

Quick Recap: Easy to Remember

• Singular subject → singular verb; plural subject → plural verb.
• “And” = plural; “or/nor” = agree with nearest subject.
• Indefinite pronouns are mostly singular.
• Collective nouns depend on meaning.
• Pronouns must match their antecedents.
• Keep tenses logically consistent.

VIII. Voice and Verb Interaction

Voice in grammar refers to the relationship between the subject and the action of the verb.
It determines whether the subject is performing the action or receiving the action.
The two main voices in English are the Active Voice and the Passive Voice.

A. Active Voice
Definition
In the active voice, the subject performs the action of the verb.
It is the most direct, natural, and emphasized structure in English writing and speech.
• Pattern:
Subject + Verb + Object
• Examples:
○ The teacher (S) explains (V) the lesson (O).
○ The dog (S) chased (V) the cat (O).
Characteristics
• The subject is the doer of the action.
• The verb is in its normal (active) form.
• The focus is on who/what performs the action.
When to Use Active Voice
• When clarity, strength, or directness is needed.
• When the agent (doer) is more important than the receiver.
Examples
• Scientists discovered a new planet.
• The chef cooked the meal perfectly.

B. Passive Voice
Definition
In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb.
The doer of the action may be mentioned (with by) or omitted.
• Pattern:
Subject + Auxiliary (be) + Past Participle (+ by + Agent)
• Examples:
○ The lesson (S) is explained (V) by the teacher.
○ The cat (S) was chased (V) by the dog.

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 ○ The cat (S) was chased (V) by the dog.
Characteristics
• The focus is on the receiver of the action, not the doer.
• The verb phrase always includes a form of “to be” + past participle.
• The agent (the performer of the action) can be added or omitted.
When to Use Passive Voice
• When the doer is unknown, unimportant, or obvious.
• When the receiver of the action is more important.
• In formal, scientific, or objective writing to avoid personal tone.
Examples
• The results were recorded carefully. (agent omitted)
• The song was written by Taylor Swift. (agent included)

C. Transforming Active to Passive Voice

General Rule
The object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence, and the subject
becomes the agent (by-phrase).
Active Voice Passive Voice
The chef cooked the meal. The meal was cooked by the chef.
The police arrested the thief. The thief was arrested by the police.
They will publish the book next year. The book will be published next year.

Transformation Steps
1. Identify the subject, verb, and object.
The teacher (S) explained (V) the lesson (O).
2. Move the object to the subject position.
The lesson ...
3. Change the main verb to the passive form:
be + past participle → was explained.
4. Optionally add “by + original subject.”
The lesson was explained by the teacher.

Passive Voice Forms for All Tenses

Tense Active Passive
Simple Present They make toys. Toys are made (by them).
Present Continuous They are making toys. Toys are being made.
Present Perfect They have made toys. Toys have been made.
Simple Past They made toys. Toys were made.
Past Continuous They were making toys. Toys were being made.
Past Perfect They had made toys. Toys had been made.
Simple Future They will make toys. Toys will be made.
Future Perfect They will have made toys. Toys will have been made.
Modal Verbs They can make toys. Toys can be made.

D. Intransitive Verbs and Voice

Intransitive verbs do not take direct objects, and therefore cannot be made passive.
Passive voice requires an object to become the new subject.
• Examples:
He slept. → ❌ He was slept. (incorrect)

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 ○ He slept. → ❌ He was slept. (incorrect)
○ She arrived early. → ❌ She was arrived. (incorrect)
Transitive verbs, on the other hand, take direct objects and can be transformed.
• She wrote a letter. → A letter was written (by her).

E. Agentless Passive Constructions

When the doer is unknown, obvious, or unimportant, the agent (by + noun) is omitted.
• The window was broken (by someone). → The window was broken.
• English is spoken worldwide.
• The law was passed in 1987.
This is especially common in scientific, news, and academic writing, where objectivity is
emphasized.

F. Double Object Constructions (Ditransitive Verbs)

Some verbs take two objects (direct and indirect), and either can become the subject in the passive
form.
• Active: She gave him a gift.
○ Passive (1): He was given a gift.
○ Passive (2): A gift was given to him.
Both are grammatically correct.

G. Get-Passive Construction
Sometimes English uses “get + past participle” as an informal or idiomatic passive.
• He got hurt in the game.
• They got invited to the party.
Used mainly in spoken English or informal writing, often suggesting unexpected or emotional
involvement.

H. Voice and Meaning

Sometimes, changing voice also changes emphasis or focus, not just grammar.
Active Passive Emphasis
The storm destroyed the The village was destroyed by the Focus shifts from cause to
village. storm. result.
The manager praised the The team was praised by the Focus shifts to the team.
team. manager.

I. Common Errors and Corrections

Error Correction Explanation
The cake eaten by the The cake was eaten by the Missing auxiliary “was.”
children. children.
She was slept by him. ✖ Invalid (intransitive verb) “Sleep” has no object.
The letter has wrote by The letter has been written by Wrong verb form; needs “been + past
John. John. participle.”

J. Summary of Voice Rules

• Active Voice: subject performs the action.
• Passive Voice: subject receives the action.
• Only transitive verbs can have passive forms.
• Passive form = be + past participle (+ by + agent).
• Use passive when the receiver or result is more important.
• Avoid overusing the passive in writing; it can make sentences vague or wordy.

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 • Avoid overusing the passive in writing; it can make sentences vague or wordy.

Quick Recap (Easy to Remember)

• Active = doer-focused. (The cat chased the mouse.)
• Passive = receiver-focused. (The mouse was chased by the cat.)
• Intransitive verbs → cannot form passive.
• be + past participle → key marker of passive.
• Use passive for formality, focus, or when the doer is unknown.

IX. Degrees of Comparison

Definition:
The degrees of comparison are the forms of adjectives and adverbs used to compare qualities,
quantities, or actions between nouns or pronouns.
There are three degrees of comparison: Positive, Comparative, and Superlative.
They show how much or to what extent something possesses a quality.

A. Positive Degree
Definition:
The positive degree expresses a simple quality without comparing it to another.
It describes, rather than compares.
• Form: base form of the adjective/adverb
(tall, happy, beautiful, quickly, well)
• Examples:
○ This building is tall.
○ She sings beautifully.
○ He is intelligent.
• Usage:
Used when only one thing/person is described.

B. Comparative Degree
Definition:
The comparative degree expresses a higher or lower degree of a quality between two people,
objects, or actions.
• Form:
○ For short adjectives/adverbs (one syllable): add -er.
▪ taller, faster, cleaner, sooner
○ For long adjectives/adverbs (two or more syllables): use more or less before the word.
▪ more beautiful, less intelligent, more carefully
• Structure:
Subject + verb + comparative adjective/adverb + than + object
• Examples:
○ This building is taller than that one.
○ She runs faster than her brother.
○ He is more careful than his friend.
○ The test was less difficult than I expected.
• Special Notes:
○ “than” introduces the second item of comparison.
○ Avoid double comparatives: ✖ more better → ✔ better.

C. Superlative Degree
Definition:
The superlative degree expresses the highest or lowest degree of a quality among three or more
items.

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items.
• Form:
○ For short adjectives/adverbs: add -est.
▪ tallest, fastest, nearest
○ For long adjectives/adverbs: use most or least before the word.
▪ most beautiful, least expensive, most carefully
• Structure:
Subject + verb + the + superlative adjective/adverb + (noun/phrase)
• Examples:
○ Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world.
○ She is the most talented dancer in the group.
○ This is the least interesting topic.
• Special Notes:
○ Always use “the” before a superlative adjective.
○ Avoid double superlatives: ✖ the most happiest → ✔ the happiest.

D. Formation Rules
Type of Adjective Comparative Superlativ Example
e
One syllable Add -er Add -est tall → taller → tallest
Ends in “e” Add -r / -st same rule large → larger → largest
Ends in consonant + y Change y → i + er/est happy → happier → happiest
Ends in CVC pattern (consonant- Double final big → bigger → biggest
vowel-consonant) consonant + -er/est
Two or more syllables Use more/most beautiful → more beautiful
→ most beautiful
Adverbs (except one-syllable) Use more/most carefully → more carefully →
most carefully

E. Irregular Comparisons
Some adjectives and adverbs form their degrees irregularly, without following the -er/-est or
more/most rule.
Positive Comparative Superlative
good / well better best
bad / badly worse worst
far farther / further farthest / furthest
little less least
much / many more most
old older / elder oldest / eldest
late later latest / last
near nearer nearest / next
Examples:
• She is better at singing than I am.
• This is the worst performance I’ve seen.
• He has less patience than before.
• This is the farthest I’ve ever gone.

F. Double Comparatives and Superlatives (Errors)

Avoid using two comparative or superlative markers in one word.

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Avoid using two comparative or superlative markers in one word.
Incorrect Correct Explanation
more better better “better” is already comparative
most fastest fastest “fastest” already means highest degree
more happier happier one degree marker only

G. Comparative Structures and Constructions

1. Equality (as...as)
○ Used when two items are equal in degree.
○ He is as tall as his father.
○ This book is as interesting as that one.
○ Negative form: not as/so...as → She is not as tall as her brother.
2. Unequality (less...than)
○ This room is less spacious than the other.
3. Gradual Comparison (the...the...)
○ The higher you go, the cooler it becomes.
○ The more you read, the smarter you get.
4. Comparative + Comparative
○ Expresses continual increase or decrease.
○ He’s getting stronger and stronger.
○ It’s becoming more and more difficult.

H. Degrees of Comparison with Adverbs

• Regular (one-syllable) adverbs: add -er / -est
fast → faster → fastest
hard → harder → hardest
• Irregular adverbs:
well → better → best
badly → worse → worst
• Most adverbs (especially those ending in -ly): use more/most
quickly → more quickly → most quickly
carefully → more carefully → most carefully

I. Common Usage Notes

• Do not use “more” or “most” with adjectives that already have -er/-est endings.
✖ more taller → ✔ taller
• Always include “the” with superlatives.
✖ She is best singer. → ✔ She is the best singer.
• “Lesser” is not always the opposite of “greater”; it has specific meaning (of smaller
importance).
The lesser evil means the less harmful option.

J. Summary of Degree Rules

• Positive degree: describes one noun (no comparison).
• Comparative degree: compares two; uses -er or more.
• Superlative degree: compares three or more; uses -est or most.
• Irregular forms must be memorized.
• Use as...as, less...than, the...the... for special comparisons.

Quick Recap (Easy to Remember)

• Positive: good — no comparison
• Comparative: better — between two
• Superlative: best — among three or more

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 • Superlative: best — among three or more
• Short adjectives → -er/-est
• Long adjectives → more/most
• Always use the before a superlative.
• Avoid double forms (more better).

X. The Pronoun System

Definition:
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun to avoid repetition and make language more concise.
Pronouns refer to persons, objects, ideas, or places already mentioned or understood in context.
They carry grammatical information such as number, gender, person, and case, and must agree
with their antecedent (the noun they replace).

A. Characteristics of Pronouns
• Pronouns stand in for nouns or noun phrases.
• They have person (1st, 2nd, 3rd), number (singular/plural), and sometimes gender (masculine,
feminine, neutral).
• Pronouns show case: subjective, objective, or possessive.
• They can be reflexive, interrogative, demonstrative, relative, indefinite, or reciprocal
depending on function.

B. Pronoun Categories
1. Personal Pronouns
Definition:
Refer directly to the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person/thing spoken about.
Person Subjective Objective Possessive Possessive Reflexive
(Adj.) (Pronoun)
1st Singular I me my mine myself
2nd you you your yours yourself
Singular
3rd Singular he / she / him / her / his / her / its his / hers himself / herself /
it it itself
1st Plural we us our ours ourselves
2nd Plural you you your yours yourselves
3rd Plural they them their theirs themselves
Examples:
• I saw her at the market.
• They invited us to the party.
• This book is mine.

2. Reflexive Pronouns
Definition:
Used when the subject and the object are the same person or thing.
Form:
self / selves attached to personal pronouns.
(myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves)
Examples:
• He hurt himself while playing.
• They prepared themselves for the test.
• I taught myself to code.
Function:
• Used for emphasis (She herself did the work.)

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 • Used for emphasis (She herself did the work.)
• Used as objects when subject = object (He blames himself.)

3. Demonstrative Pronouns
Definition:
Used to point out specific things or people.
Forms:
this, that, these, those
Number Near (close to speaker) Far (away)
Singular this that
Plural these those
Examples:
• This is my pen; that is yours.
• These are delicious; those are too salty.

4. Interrogative Pronouns
Definition:
Used to ask questions.
Forms:
who, whom, whose, which, what
Examples:
• Who is knocking at the door? (subject)
• Whom did you call? (object)
• Whose book is this? (possession)
• Which is your bag?
• What is your name?
Note:
• Who = subject, whom = object.
• Whose = shows ownership.

5. Relative Pronouns
Definition:
Connect a dependent clause to a main clause and refer back to a noun (antecedent).
Forms:
who, whom, whose, which, that
Examples:
• The man who called is my uncle.
• The book that I bought is new.
• The girl whose bag was lost cried.
Functions:
• who/whom/whose → persons
• which → animals/things
• that → people/things (common in defining clauses)

6. Indefinite Pronouns
Definition:
Refer to non-specific persons or things.
Examples:
• somebody, anyone, everyone, no one, each, few, many, several, all, both, neither, either, none
Usage Examples:
• Everyone loves music.
• Few were chosen.
• Neither of them knew the answer.
• Something is burning.
Notes:

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Notes:
• Can be singular or plural, depending on meaning.
Each, everyone, nobody → singular
Few, several, many → plural

7. Reciprocal Pronouns
Definition:
Show mutual or shared action/relationship between two or more subjects.
Forms:
each other, one another
Examples:
• They love each other.
• The players congratulated one another.
Usage:
• each other → two persons
• one another → more than two (though often used interchangeably)

8. Possessive Pronouns
Definition:
Show ownership or possession.
Forms:
mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs
Examples:
• That house is mine.
• This pen is hers.
• Theirs is better than ours.
Distinction:
• Possessive pronouns → stand alone (This book is mine.)
• Possessive adjectives/determiners → used before nouns (This is my book.)

C. Pronoun Case System

1. Subjective (Nominative):
Used as subject of the sentence.
I, you, he, she, it, we, they
→ He runs fast.
2. Objective (Accusative):
Used as object of verb or preposition.
me, you, him, her, it, us, them
→ The teacher called us.
3. Possessive:
Shows ownership or relationship.
my/mine, your/yours, his, her/hers, our/ours, their/theirs
→ That is her pen. / That pen is hers.

D. Pronoun–Antecedent Agreement
Pronouns must agree with their antecedent in:
• Number: Each student must bring his or her notebook.
• Gender: John lost his keys.
• Person: If one wants success, one must work hard.
Common Errors:
• ✖ Everyone must bring their notebook.
✔ Everyone must bring his or her notebook.
(or pluralize: All students must bring their notebooks.)

E. Emphatic vs. Reflexive Usage

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E. Emphatic vs. Reflexive Usage
• Reflexive: when subject and object are same
→ He taught himself to drive.
• Emphatic: used only for stress
→ He himself cleaned the room.

F. Common Confusions
Incorrect Correct Reason
Me and John went to school. John and I went to school. Subject case required.
Him and me are friends. He and I are friends. “He” = subject form.
Between you and I Between you and me After preposition → objective case.

G. Summary (Quick to Remember)

• Pronouns replace nouns.
• Personal pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, we, they.
• Reflexive: end in -self / -selves → show self-action.
• Demonstrative: this, that, these, those.
• Interrogative: who, whom, whose, which, what.
• Relative: who, which, that → connect clauses.
• Indefinite: some, many, few, all, anyone.
• Reciprocal: each other, one another.
• Possessive: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs.
• Cases: Subjective (I), Objective (me), Possessive (my/mine).
• Pronoun = must agree in number, gender, and person with its antecedent.
• Avoid case errors: Between you and me, not Between you and I.

Essence Recap:
Pronouns are substitutes for nouns that maintain grammatical harmony through agreement,
case, and reference.
They make speech less repetitive and more efficient, while preserving clarity and
grammatical precision.

XI. Determiners
Definition:
A determiner is a function word that appears before a noun to specify its reference — whether it is
known or unknown, definite or indefinite, singular or plural, general or specific, and how much or
how many.
In short, determiners “determine” the meaning of the noun that follows.
They are always placed before adjectives and before the noun in a noun phrase.
Example:
The big dog, a red car, some water, my phone, those apples.

A. Functions and Role of Determiners

• Identify and specify nouns.
• Signal quantity, ownership, definiteness, or proximity.
• Appear before any descriptive adjective.
○ The old man, not ✖ old the man.
• Help distinguish between general and specific reference.
○ A cat (any cat) vs. The cat (specific one).

B. Major Types of Determiners

Determinants are traditionally grouped as:

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Determinants are traditionally grouped as:
1. Articles
2. Demonstratives
3. Possessives
4. Quantifiers
5. Numerals
Each plays a distinct role in narrowing the reference of the noun.

1. Articles
Definition:
Articles mark definiteness or indefiniteness of a noun.
They are the most common type of determiners.
Types:
a. Definite Article – “the”
• Refers to a specific noun already known to the speaker and listener.
• Used with both singular and plural, countable and uncountable nouns.
Examples:
• The sun rises in the east.
• I met the teacher yesterday.
• The apples on the table are fresh.
b. Indefinite Articles – “a” and “an”
• Refer to a non-specific or unknown noun.
• “A” before consonant sounds, “An” before vowel sounds.
Examples:
• A dog barked loudly.
• An umbrella is useful in the rain.
Usage Notes:
• Used only with singular countable nouns.
• ✖ A waters → ✔ Some water (use quantifiers instead for uncountable nouns).

2. Demonstrative Determiners
Definition:
Show distance or position (near/far) relative to the speaker.
Number Near Far
Singular this that
Plural these those
Examples:
• This apple is sweet. (near)
• Those stars are bright. (far)
Notes:
• Demonstrative determiners must be followed by a noun.
○ This book is new.
○ (If used alone: This is new. → becomes a demonstrative pronoun.)

3. Possessive Determiners
Definition:
Show ownership or relationship between the possessor and the noun.
Forms:
my, your, his, her, its, our, their
Examples:
• My car is new.
• Our house is big.
• Their teacher is kind.
Notes:
• Do not confuse with possessive pronouns (mine, yours, hers), which stand alone.

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 • Do not confuse with possessive pronouns (mine, yours, hers), which stand alone.
○ ✔ My book is red. ✖ Mine book is red.
○ ✔ This book is mine.

4. Quantifiers
Definition:
Express quantity (how much/how many) of nouns.
Used with countable or uncountable nouns.
a. For Countable Nouns:
many, few, several, a few, both, each, every, neither, either
Examples:
• Many students passed the exam.
• Each student must submit homework.
• A few books were left.
b. For Uncountable Nouns:
much, little, a little, a bit of, plenty of, a great deal of, some, any
Examples:
• I have little money left.
• There is some sugar on the table.
c. Used with Both Countable & Uncountable:
all, some, any, enough, no, most, more, less
Examples:
• All students were present.
• We need more water.
• There isn’t any time left.
Notes:
• Some → used in positive statements.
• Any → used in negatives/questions.
○ I have some apples.
○ Do you have any apples?

5. Numerals
Definition:
Express exact number or order of nouns.
They are divided into cardinal and ordinal numbers.
a. Cardinal Numerals (Quantity)
one, two, three, four…
→ I have three dogs.
b. Ordinal Numerals (Order/Rank)
first, second, third, fourth…
→ She won the first prize.
Notes:
• Numerals always appear before the noun they describe.
• If multiple determiners appear, numerals usually follow articles or possessives:
○ The three boys ran.
○ My two sisters arrived.

C. Determiner Order in Noun Phrases

When more than one determiner is used, they usually appear in this sequence:
Quantity → Article/Determiner → Possessive → Adjective → Noun
Example:
All the three beautiful flowers bloomed.
Breakdown:
• All → quantifier
• the → article
• three → numeral

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 • three → numeral
• beautiful → adjective
• flowers → noun

D. Special Types of Determiners

1. Distributive Determiners
• each, every, either, neither
→ refer to individual members of a group.
Examples:
• Each student received a medal.
• Neither answer is correct.
2. Interrogative Determiners
• which, what, whose (when placed before a noun in a question)
Examples:
• Which color do you prefer?
• Whose pen is this?
• What movie did you watch?

E. Differences to Remember
Determiner Type Example Notes
Article a, an, the marks definiteness
Demonstrative this, that, these, those shows proximity
Possessive my, your, his, her, etc. shows ownership
Quantifier some, many, few, much expresses quantity
Numeral one, two, first, second expresses number/order

F. Common Errors and Notes

Incorrect Correct Explanation
She has a many friends. She has many friends. “a” and “many” cannot be used together
He gave the my book. He gave me my book. Only one determiner before a noun
An university A university “university” begins with a consonant sound (yu)
A honest man An honest man “honest” begins with a vowel sound

G. Summary (Quick to Remember)

• Determiners = words before nouns that define, specify, or quantify.
• Articles: a, an, the
• Demonstratives: this, that, these, those
• Possessives: my, your, his, her, our, their
• Quantifiers: some, many, few, much, all, several
• Numerals: one, two, first, second
• Always appear before adjectives and nouns.
• Usually only one determiner per noun phrase (except quantifiers + articles).
• Help distinguish general vs. specific, near vs. far, definite vs. indefinite.

Essence Recap:
Determiners are grammatical markers that come before nouns to show which one, how
many, or whose it is.
They control the definiteness, quantity, and ownership of the noun and are essential for clear
reference in English syntax.

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XII. Question Formation
Definition:
A question (or interrogative sentence) is a type of sentence used to request information,
confirm details, or elicit responses.
Questions are formed by inverting the subject and auxiliary verb, or by using interrogative
words such as who, what, when, where, why, how.
They are crucial to communication, inquiry, and confirmation in English.

A. Structural Features of Questions

1. Subject–Auxiliary Inversion:
○ In most question forms, the auxiliary verb comes before the subject.
▪ He is coming. → Is he coming?
▪ They have finished. → Have they finished?
2. If no auxiliary verb exists, insert do/does/did as a dummy auxiliary (called do-support).
○ She likes apples. → Does she like apples?
○ They went home. → Did they go home?
3. Rising Intonation:
○ Spoken questions typically end with a rising tone in yes/no forms.

B. Types of Interrogative Sentences

English questions are classified by purpose and structure into the following types:

1. Yes/No Questions
Definition:
Ask for a confirmation or denial — the expected answer is yes or no.
Structure:
Auxiliary (or modal) + Subject + Main Verb + (Object/Complement)?
Examples:
• Are you tired?
• Do you like coffee?
• Can they swim?
• Did she arrive early?
Usage Notes:
• Use do/does/did for simple tenses.
• Use the appropriate auxiliary/modal in continuous, perfect, or modal forms.
○ Have you eaten?
○ Is he working?
○ Will they come?

2. WH-Questions (Information Questions)

Definition:
Ask for specific information (not yes/no).
They begin with a question word (wh-word).
Common WH-Words:
WH-Word Function Example
Who person (subject) Who called you?
Whom person (object) Whom did you meet?
Whose possession Whose pen is this?
What thing / idea What is your name?
Which choice among options Which color do you prefer?
When time When will he arrive?

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When time When will he arrive?
Where place Where do you live?
Why reason Why are you late?
How manner / degree How did you solve it?
Structure:
WH-word + Auxiliary + Subject + Verb + (Object/Complement)?
Examples:
• Where do you live?
• When did she arrive?
• Why are you crying?
• Who broke the vase?
Notes:
• If the WH-word is the subject, no inversion occurs.
○ Who broke the glass? ✔
○ ✖ Who did break the glass? (only for emphasis)

3. Tag Questions
Definition:
A tag question is a short question added to the end of a statement to ask for confirmation or
agreement.
It turns a declarative sentence into an interrogative statement.
Structure:
Positive statement → Negative tag
Negative statement → Positive tag
Examples:
• You are a student, aren’t you?
• She isn’t coming, is she?
• They have finished, haven’t they?
• Let’s go, shall we?
Formation Rules:
1. Repeat the auxiliary verb or do/does/did.
2. The pronoun in the tag matches the subject of the sentence.
3. Positive → Negative; Negative → Positive.
4. Rising intonation → genuine question; falling intonation → expectation of agreement.
Special Cases:
• I am early, aren’t I? (not ✖ amn’t I)
• Let’s go, shall we?
• Nobody called, did they? (negative meaning → positive tag)

4. Choice Questions
Definition:
Offer two or more alternatives; the listener must choose one.
Structure:
Auxiliary + Subject + Verb + Option 1 or Option 2?
Examples:
• Do you want coffee or tea?
• Will you go now or later?
• Are they staying here or leaving tomorrow?
Notes:
• Final rising intonation on the last option.
• Answers typically restate the choice: I’ll have tea.

5. Embedded (Indirect) Questions

Definition:
A politer or indirect form of a question embedded within a statement or another question.

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A politer or indirect form of a question embedded within a statement or another question.
Structure:
Introductory clause + WH-clause / if-clause
Examples:
• I wonder where she went.
• Could you tell me what time it is?
• Do you know if they’re coming?
Rules:
1. No inversion in the embedded part.
○ ✖ I wonder where did she go.
○ ✔ I wonder where she went.
2. Punctuation: ends with a period (.) or question mark (?) depending on structure.
3. Common in polite speech and indirect inquiries.

6. Rhetorical Questions
Definition:
Questions asked for effect, not for actual answers — used to make a point or emphasize
emotion.
Examples:
• Who cares?
• Isn’t that amazing?
• Why bother?
• How could I forget you?
Usage:
• The answer is often obvious or implied.
• Adds expressiveness, irony, or persuasion to writing and speech.

C. Question Words and Functions (Summary Table)

Function WH-Word Example
Person (subject) Who Who came?
Person (object) Whom Whom did you call?
Possession Whose Whose car is this?
Thing What What is that?
Choice Which Which route is faster?
Time When When did you leave?
Place Where Where is my bag?
Reason Why Why are you late?
Manner / Degree How How did you know?

D. Special “How” Constructions

Expression Function Example
How far distance How far is your school?
How long duration How long will it take?
How often frequency How often do you exercise?
How much quantity (uncountable) How much money do you have?
How many quantity (countable) How many students came?
How old age How old are you?
How come reason (informal “why”) How come you’re late?

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 E. Inversion Rules Recap
1. Auxiliary before subject in all interrogatives except subject questions.
2. If no auxiliary → use do/does/did.
3. Never double-invert in embedded questions.
4. Intonation carries meaning — rising for uncertainty, falling for emphasis.

F. Common Errors
Incorrect Correct Explanation
Where you are going? Where are you going? Subject–auxiliary inversion required
What she is doing? What is she doing? Same rule
I don’t know where did she I don’t know where she Embedded question — no inversion
go. went.
Isn’t it? (for all statements) Aren’t you? / Doesn’t he? Tag must agree with subject and
etc. auxiliary

G. Summary (Quick to Remember)

• Yes/No Questions → Is he coming?
• WH-Questions → Where are you going?
• Tag Questions → You’re ready, aren’t you?
• Embedded Questions → I wonder when she’ll arrive.
• Rhetorical Questions → Who wouldn’t want that?
Rules Recap:
• Invert subject and auxiliary.
• Use do/does/did if no auxiliary exists.
• WH-word starts information questions.
• Tag reverses polarity (positive ↔ negative).
• Embedded questions skip inversion.
• Rhetorical questions are for emphasis, not answers.

Essence Recap:
English question formation is built on inversion and interrogation words.
Mastering auxiliary placement, WH-usage, and tag structure allows clear expression of
curiosity, doubt, or confirmation — the foundation of interactive communication.

XIII. Sentence Types by Function

Definition:
Sentences in English can be classified not only by their structure (simple, compound, complex,
compound-complex) but also by their function—that is, the purpose or communicative intent
behind them.
Every sentence serves one of four main functions: declarative, interrogative, imperative, or
exclamatory.
These categories determine word order, punctuation, tone, and intonation.

A. The Four Functional Sentence Types

1. Declarative Sentences
Definition:
A declarative sentence is used to make a statement or convey information. It expresses facts,
opinions, descriptions, or arguments.
Structure:

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Structure:
Subject + Predicate (+ Object / Complement)
Punctuation: Ends with a period (.)
Examples:
• The sun rises in the east.
• She loves classical music.
• They are studying for the exam.
• Honesty is the best policy.
Notes:
• The subject normally comes before the verb.
• Declaratives are the most common type of sentence in English.
• Used in both spoken and written forms to assert truth or belief.

2. Interrogative Sentences
Definition:
An interrogative sentence asks a question and seeks information, confirmation, or opinion.
Structure:
Auxiliary/Modal + Subject + Verb + (Rest of Predicate)?
Or begins with a WH-word (what, who, where, when, why, how).
Punctuation: Ends with a question mark (?)
Examples:
• Do you like chocolate?
• When will he arrive?
• Is she ready?
• Why are you smiling?
Notes:
• Involves subject–auxiliary inversion.
• Covered extensively in Section XII (Question Formation).

3. Imperative Sentences
Definition:
An imperative sentence gives a command, instruction, request, advice, or prohibition.
It often implies the subject “you,” which is understood but not stated.
Structure:
(You) + Base Form of Verb + (Object/Complement)
Punctuation: Usually ends with a period (.), but may end with an exclamation mark (!)
to show emphasis or emotion.
Examples:
• Close the door.
• Please sit down.
• Don’t touch that!
• Have a seat.
• Remember to call your mother.
Notes:
• Negative imperative uses do not or don’t.
• Used in instructions, orders, or directions.
• Can be softened with please or modal verbs (Could you…?, Would you mind…?) for politeness.

4. Exclamatory Sentences
Definition:
An exclamatory sentence expresses strong emotion, surprise, excitement, or intensity.
It is not used to ask or command, but to emphasize feeling.
Structure:
Often begins with What or How + adjective/noun phrase + subject + verb!
Punctuation: Always ends with an exclamation mark (!)
Examples:
• What a beautiful day!

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 • What a beautiful day!
• How amazing that is!
• That was incredible!
• I can’t believe it!
• You did it!
Notes:
• Reflects emotive tone and heightened intensity.
• Word order may shift for emphasis (How lovely she looks!).
• Should be used sparingly in formal writing but freely in dialogue or expressive contexts.

B. Comparative Overview
Sentence Purpose Word Order Ending Punctuation Example
Type
Declarative Statement Subject–Verb Period (.) He is my friend.
Interrogative Question Aux/WH–Subject–Verb Question mark (?) Is he your
friend?
Imperative Command/Reque (You)–Base Verb Period (.) / Exclamation Be quiet!
st (!)
Exclamatory Emotion What/How–Subject– Exclamation mark (!) What a
Verb surprise!

C. Special Forms and Usage

1. Polite Imperatives:
Use please or modal forms (Could you, Would you mind) for formal tone.
○ Please pass the salt.
○ Could you open the window?
2. Indirect Questions:
Functionally interrogative, but structurally declarative.
○ I wonder where she went.
○ Tell me what time it is.
3. Exclamatory with Declarative Form:
Some exclamations use declarative structure but express emotion.
○ That was so beautiful!
○ You really scared me!
4. Negative Imperatives:
Use don’t or do not before the base verb.
○ Don’t move!
○ Do not forget your keys.
5. Softened Commands (Imperative disguised as Interrogative):
Grammatically interrogative but functionally imperative.
○ Would you please sit down?
○ Can you help me?

D. Functional Distinctions (Summary)

• Declarative: Provides information or opinion.
→ The Earth orbits the Sun.
• Interrogative: Requests information.
→ Does the Earth orbit the Sun?
• Imperative: Gives command or advice.
→ Observe the planets carefully.
• Exclamatory: Expresses emotion or surprise.
→ What a fascinating discovery!

E. Quick Summary (Easy to Remember)

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E. Quick Summary (Easy to Remember)
Type Function Example Tone
Declarative Tells something She is happy. Neutral / Informative
Interrogative Asks something Is she happy? Curious / Questioning
Imperative Tells someone to do something Be happy! Commanding / Advising
Exclamatory Shows strong feeling How happy she is! Emotional / Expressive

Essence Recap:
English sentence functions express thought, inquiry, intention, and emotion.
By mastering the four types, one controls tone, structure, and communicative purpose in all
spoken and written contexts.

XIV. Word Relations and Functions

Definition:
Words in English form a network of relationships based on meaning, sound, spelling, and
grammatical behavior.
Understanding these relationships helps identify semantic precision, stylistic nuance, and word
function in sentences.

A. Synonyms and Antonyms

1. Synonyms
Definition:
Words that have similar or nearly the same meaning in certain contexts.
Examples:
• Happy → Joyful, Glad, Pleased, Content
• Big → Large, Huge, Enormous, Massive
Notes:
• Synonyms are context-dependent; they are rarely identical in meaning.
○ Childish ≠ Childlike (negative vs. positive tone).
• Used to avoid repetition and enhance expression.

2. Antonyms
Definition:
Words that have opposite or contrasting meanings.
Examples:
• Hot ↔ Cold
• Brave ↔ Cowardly
• Victory ↔ Defeat
Types of Antonyms:
1. Gradable: Exist on a scale (big–small, hot–cold).
2. Complementary: Mutually exclusive (alive–dead).
3. Relational: Express opposite roles (buy–sell, teacher–student).

B. Homonyms, Homophones, and Homographs

1. Homonyms
Definition:
Words that have the same spelling or pronunciation but different meanings.
Examples:
• Bat (flying mammal) / Bat (sports equipment)
• Bank (river side) / Bank (financial institution)

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2. Homophones
Definition:
Words that sound the same but have different spellings and meanings.
Examples:
• Two / Too / To
• Right / Write
• Sea / See

3. Homographs
Definition:
Words that are spelled the same but pronounced differently and have different meanings.
Examples:
• Lead (/liːd/, to guide) / Lead (/lɛd/, a metal)
• Tear (/tɪər/, to rip) / Tear (/tɛər/, from the eye)

C. Polysemy
Definition:
A single word that has multiple related meanings.
Unlike homonyms, the meanings share a common origin or conceptual link.
Examples:
• Head → body part / leader / front of something (head of department, head of table).
• Run → to move quickly / to operate (run a business).
• Light → illumination / not heavy (light work).
Notes:
• Polysemy is context-dependent.
The sentence determines which meaning applies.

D. Collocations
Definition:
A habitual combination of words that native speakers commonly use together.
They form natural-sounding expressions.
Examples:
• Make a decision (not ✖ do a decision)
• Heavy rain (not ✖ strong rain)
• Fast food (not ✖ quick food)
• Pay attention, Commit a crime, Catch a cold.
Notes:
• Collocations improve fluency and naturalness.
• Types include:
○ Verb + Noun (make a plan)
○ Adjective + Noun (strong wind)
○ Noun + Noun (traffic jam)
○ Adverb + Adjective (deeply concerned)

E. Idiomatic Expressions
Definition:
Phrases whose meanings cannot be understood literally from the words themselves.
They express figurative or cultural meanings.
Examples:
• Break the ice → start a conversation.
• Spill the beans → reveal a secret.
• Under the weather → feeling sick.
• Hit the books → study hard.
• A blessing in disguise → something good that seemed bad at first.

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 • A blessing in disguise → something good that seemed bad at first.
Notes:
• Idioms are fixed expressions; their structure rarely changes.
• Understanding idioms shows cultural fluency in English.

F. Word Class Conversion (Functional Shift / Zero

Derivation)
Definition:
The process by which a word changes its grammatical class without changing its form.
Also called zero derivation, since no affix is added.
Examples:
• Google (noun) → to Google (verb)
• Run (verb) → a run (noun)
• Clean (adjective) → to clean (verb)
• Down (preposition) → to down (verb) (He downed his drink.)
Notes:
• Very common in English due to its flexible morphology.
• Context determines the function of the converted word.

G. Lexical Relations Summary Table

Type Definition Example Relation
Synonymy Similar meaning Begin / Start Similar
Antonymy Opposite meaning Hot / Cold Opposite
Homonymy Same form, different meaning Bat / Bat Unrelated
Homophone Same sound, different spelling See / Sea Sound-based
Homograph Same spelling, different sound Lead / Lead Spelling-based
Polysemy Multiple related meanings Head Related
Collocation Habitual combination Strong coffee Usage pattern
Idiom Figurative expression Kick the bucket Cultural / Figurative
Conversion Same form, new function Run → a run Grammatical

H. Quick Summary (Easy to Remember)

• Synonyms → Same meaning (fast / quick)
• Antonyms → Opposite meaning (hot / cold)
• Homonyms → Same form, different meaning (bat)
• Homophones → Same sound (sea / see)
• Homographs → Same spelling (lead / lead)
• Polysemy → One word, many related meanings (run)
• Collocations → Natural pairings (make a decision)
• Idioms → Figurative meanings (break the ice)
• Conversion → Change function without change in form (to Google / a Google)

Essence Recap:
English vocabulary operates as an interconnected web of meaning, form, and function.
Mastery of lexical relations enables precision, elegance, and natural fluency in both speech
and writing.

XV. Additional Structural Concepts

Definition:
These are the structural and functional elements that determine how words, phrases, and clauses
interact within sentences.

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interact within sentences.
They include complements, adjuncts, modifiers, coordination, subordination, phrasal verbs,
particles, and sentence constituents.
Understanding them gives insight into sentence hierarchy and syntactic organization.

A. Complements
Definition:
A complement is a word, phrase, or clause that completes the meaning of another element —
usually a verb, adjective, or noun.
It is essential to the sentence’s grammatical sense.
Types of Complements:
1. Subject Complement
• Follows a linking verb (be, become, seem, appear, look, feel, sound, taste, remain, grow).
• Describes or identifies the subject.
• Structure: Subject + Linking Verb + Subject Complement
Examples:
• She is a teacher. (noun complement)
• The sky looks beautiful. (adjective complement)
• He became angry.
Function:
Renames or describes the subject.

2. Object Complement
• Follows and refers to or describes the object.
• Structure: Subject + Verb + Object + Object Complement
Examples:
• They elected him president.
• She painted the wall red.
• The movie made me sad.
Function:
Provides more information about the object’s result or state.

3. Predicative Complement
• A general term that includes both subject and object complements — anything that
completes the predicate.
Examples:
• He seems tired. (subject complement)
• They consider her brilliant. (object complement)

4. Prepositional Complement
• Completes the meaning of a preposition.
Examples:
• She is fond of chocolate.
• He depends on his parents.
• They talked about the plan.

B. Adjuncts and Modifiers

Definition:
An adjunct (or modifier) adds extra, non-essential information about time, place, manner, reason,
frequency, or condition.
Key Difference:
• Complement → essential for meaning.
• Adjunct / Modifier → optional; adds detail or context.
Examples:
• She sang beautifully. → (beautifully = adverbial adjunct)

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 • She sang beautifully. → (beautifully = adverbial adjunct)
• They arrived yesterday. → (yesterday = time adjunct)
• The tall boy ran fast. → (tall = adjectival modifier)
Types of Modifiers:
1. Adjectival Modifiers: modify nouns (a red car).
2. Adverbial Modifiers: modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs (runs quickly).
3. Phrasal/Clausal Modifiers:
○ The man wearing a hat is my uncle.
○ The boy who won the prize smiled.

C. Coordination and Subordination

1. Coordination
Definition:
Links equal or parallel elements (words, phrases, or clauses) using coordinating conjunctions.
Common Coordinators:
FANBOYS → For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So
Examples:
• She is smart and hardworking.
• I wanted to go, but it rained.
• You can take it or leave it.
Notes:
• Each clause or item retains equal grammatical status.

2. Subordination
Definition:
Joins a dependent (subordinate) clause to an independent (main) clause.
Subordinating Conjunctions:
Although, because, since, when, while, if, unless, until, whereas, even though, before, after, as.
Examples:
• I stayed home because it was raining.
• When she arrived, we started eating.
• Although he was tired, he kept working.
Notes:
• Subordinate clauses cannot stand alone.
• Create complex sentences by showing cause, time, condition, or contrast.

D. Phrasal Verbs and Particles

1. Phrasal Verbs
Definition:
A phrasal verb is a combination of a main verb + particle (preposition/adverb) that creates a new
meaning.
Examples:
• Give up (quit)
• Look after (take care of)
• Run into (meet unexpectedly)
• Turn off (deactivate)
• Break down (stop working)
Notes:
• Meaning often cannot be guessed from individual parts.
• Phrasal verbs can be transitive or intransitive.
○ She looked up the word. (transitive)
○ The car broke down. (intransitive)
Separable vs. Inseparable:
• Separable: Turn off the light / Turn the light off.
• Inseparable: Look after the baby (✖ Look the baby after)

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2. Particles
Definition:
A particle is a small functional word (like up, off, out, in) that changes the meaning or aspect of a
verb.
Examples:
• Pick up → collect
• Take off → remove or depart
• Set out → begin a journey
• Put up with → tolerate
Notes:
• Particles can act adverbially or prepositionally.
• Vital in idiomatic verb constructions.

E. Sentence Constituents and Hierarchy

Definition:
Constituents are the building blocks of sentence structure — the organized groups of words that
function as units.
Hierarchy Example:
1. Sentence (S)
→ 2. Clause (main or subordinate)
→ 3. Phrase (NP, VP, PP, AdjP, AdvP)
→ 4. Word (lexical or functional)
→ 5. Morpheme (root or affix)
Example Breakdown:
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.
Level Example Function
Sentence The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog. Complete idea
Clause The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog Independent clause
Phrase the quick brown fox (NP), jumps over the lazy dog (VP) Structural units
Word quick, jumps, over Lexical items
Morpheme jump + -s Root + inflection

F. Functional Distinctions Recap

Concept Definition Essential or Example
Optional
Complement Completes verb or subject Essential She is a doctor.
meaning
Adjunct / Adds extra information Optional She works hard.
Modifier
Coordinator Joins equal parts — He sings and dances.
Subordinator Joins dependent to main — Because it rained, we stayed
clause home.
Particle Adds meaning to verb — Look up, give in.

G. Quick Summary (Easy to Remember)

• Complement: completes meaning (She is happy.)
• Adjunct / Modifier: adds detail (She runs fast.)
• Coordination: joins equals (and, but, or).
• Subordination: joins dependent to main (because, when, although).
• Phrasal Verb: verb + particle (turn off, look after).

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 • Phrasal Verb: verb + particle (turn off, look after).
• Constituents: hierarchical sentence parts (sentence → clause → phrase → word →
morpheme).

Essence Recap:
The internal structure of English sentences depends on functional relationships —
complements that complete, modifiers that enrich, and conjunctions that link.
Mastering these builds a deep grammatical intuition for sentence formation and syntactic
balance.

XVI. IRREGULAR VERBS AND CONJUGATION

Definition:
Verbs in English show changes in form (inflection) to express tense, aspect, mood, and agreement.
When a verb follows a predictable pattern by adding -ed for the past tense and past participle, it is
regular.
When it does not follow that pattern, it is irregular.

A. Regular vs. Irregular Verbs

1. Regular Verbs
Formation Rule:
Base form + -ed → Past Tense / Past Participle
Examples:
Base Past Past Participle
walk walked walked
play played played
open opened opened
clean cleaned cleaned
Notes:
• The -ed ending may sound different:
○ /t/ → worked
○ /d/ → played
○ /ɪd/ → wanted
Key Feature: Predictable pattern — walk → walked → walked.

2. Irregular Verbs
Definition:
Do not form the past tense or past participle using -ed.
They change internally (vowel/consonant shift) or remain the same.
Examples:
Base Past Past Participle Pattern
go went gone vowel change
eat ate eaten vowel + suffix
see saw seen vowel change
cut cut cut no change
buy bought bought consonant change
run ran run vowel change only
swim swam swum triple variation
Notes:
• Must be memorized — no universal rule.
• Many of the most common verbs are irregular (be, have, do, go, say, make, take, come).

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 • Many of the most common verbs are irregular (be, have, do, go, say, make, take, come).

B. Principal Parts of Verbs

English verbs have four principal parts:
Verb Form Function Example (go)
Base form used for present (except 3rd person singular) go
-s form 3rd person singular present goes
Past form simple past went
Past participle used with auxiliaries (have, be) gone
-ing form (present participle) continuous tenses going
Example in Use:
• I go every day. → Base
• She goes to school. → -s form
• They went home. → Past
• We have gone already. → Past participle
• He is going now. → Present participle

C. Conjugation Across Tenses

English verbs conjugate for tense (time reference), aspect (completion or continuity), and voice
(active/passive).
Below is the standard system for the verb “to write.”
Tense Example Form / Structure
Simple Present I write. Base form (or +s)
Simple Past I wrote. Past form
Simple Future I will write. will + base
Present Continuous I am writing. am/is/are + -ing
Past Continuous I was writing. was/were + -ing
Future Continuous I will be writing. will be + -ing
Present Perfect I have written. have/has + past participle
Past Perfect I had written. had + past participle
Future Perfect I will have written. will have + past participle
Present Perfect Continuous I have been writing. have been + -ing
Past Perfect Continuous I had been writing. had been + -ing
Future Perfect Continuous I will have been writing. will have been + -ing

D. Irregular “Be,” “Have,” and “Do”

These auxiliary verbs are the most irregular and most frequently used.
1. Verb “Be”
Tense Singular Plural
Present am (I), is (he/she/it) are (we/you/they)
Past was (I/he/she/it) were (we/you/they)
Past Participle been —
Present Participle being —
Examples:
• I am happy.
• They were late.

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 • They were late.
• He has been there.

2. Verb “Have”
Form Example
Base have
3rd person has
Past had
Past Participle had
-ing form having
Examples:
• She has a car.
• I had dinner early.
• They have had enough.

3. Verb “Do”
Form Example
Base do
3rd person does
Past did
Past Participle done
-ing form doing
Examples:
• I do my homework.
• She does it daily.
• He has done great work.

E. Common Irregular Verbs (Summary Table)

Base Past Past Participle
begin began begun
break broke broken
choose chose chosen
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
fly flew flown
give gave given
know knew known
lie lay lain
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
see saw seen
sing sang sung
speak spoke spoken
swim swam swum

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swim swam swum
take took taken
write wrote written

F. Voice of Verbs (Active vs. Passive)

1. Active Voice
• The subject performs the action.
• Structure: Subject + Verb + Object
Example:
• The teacher explained the lesson.

2. Passive Voice
• The subject receives the action.
• Structure: Subject + be + Past Participle (+ by-agent)
Example:
• The lesson was explained (by the teacher).
Tense Conversions:
Active Passive
writes is written
wrote was written
will write will be written
has written has been written
is writing is being written

G. Quick Summary (Easy to Remember)

• Regular verbs → add -ed (walk → walked).
• Irregular verbs → unpredictable (go → went → gone).
• Principal parts: base, past, past participle, -ing.
• Be, Have, Do → core auxiliaries, highly irregular.
• Active voice: subject acts.
• Passive voice: subject receives action.
• Continuous tenses: use -ing.
• Perfect tenses: use have + past participle.

Essence Recap:
English verb systems rely on regularity, auxiliary structure, and tense-aspect layering.
Memorizing principal parts and common irregular verbs provides the foundation for accurate
expression across time, mood, and voice.

XVII. VOICE–TENSE INTEGRATION TABLE

Definition:
Every tense in English can appear in two voices — Active (the subject performs the action) or
Passive (the subject receives the action).
The passive voice always includes a form of “be” + past participle.

A. Overview
• Active Voice: Subject + Verb + Object
Example: The chef cooked the meal.
• Passive Voice: Subject + be + Past Participle (+ by-agent)
Example: The meal was cooked (by the chef).

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 Example: The meal was cooked (by the chef).

B. Full Tense Comparison Table

Tense Active Form Passive Form Example (write)
Simple Present writes is written She writes the letter. / The letter is
written.
Simple Past wrote was/were She wrote the letter. / The letter was
written written.
Simple Future will write will be written She will write the letter. / The letter will
be written.
Present is writing is being written She is writing the letter. / The letter is
Continuous being written.
Past Continuous was writing was being She was writing the letter. / The letter was
written being written.
Future Continuous will be writing (rarely used) She will be writing the letter.
Present Perfect has written has been She has written the letter. / The letter has
written been written.
Past Perfect had written had been She had written the letter. / The letter had
written been written.
Future Perfect will have will have been She will have written the letter. / The
written written letter will have been written.
Present Perfect has been (rarely used) She has been writing the letter.
Continuous writing
Past Perfect had been (rarely used) She had been writing the letter.
Continuous writing
Future Perfect will have been (not used) —
Continuous writing

C. Key Notes
• Passive voice focuses on the receiver of the action or de-emphasizes the doer.
• Passive forms with continuous or perfect continuous tenses are grammatically possible but
rare in natural English.
• The agent (by + noun) is optional when the doer is unknown or irrelevant.

D. Quick Summary
• Active → Passive: Insert be (same tense) + past participle.
• Use passive when the object is more important than the subject.
• Avoid overuse: excessive passive makes writing vague or weak.

XVIII. SUMMARY OF MORPHOLOGICAL AND

FUNCTIONAL DISTINCTIONS
This section consolidates the structural and functional systems that define English grammar.

A. Content vs. Function Words

Category Function Examples
Content Carry lexical meaning (open class) nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs
Words
Function Show grammatical relationships prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns,

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Function Show grammatical relationships prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns,
Words (closed class) auxiliaries, determiners
Example Sentence:
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.
• Content words: quick, brown, fox, jumps, lazy, dog
• Function words: the, over, the

B. Lexical vs. Grammatical Morphemes

Type Definition Examples
Lexical Morphemes Carry real-world meaning boy, run, beautiful
Grammatical (Functional) Express relationships or grammatical the, and, -ed, -s, in,
Morphemes functions on

C. Inflection vs. Derivation

Aspect Inflection Derivation
Purpose Changes grammatical form Creates new word
Word Class Change No Often yes
Examples play → plays, played happy → happiness, quick → quickly

D. Open vs. Closed Classes

Open Class (Content) Closed Class (Function)
Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb Pronoun, Preposition, Conjunction, Determiner, Auxiliary

E. Form vs. Function

Aspect Form (Word Category) Function (Role in Sentence)
Example “Running” (verb form) can function as noun (Running is fun) or adjective (running
water)
Key Concept:
The same word can have multiple grammatical functions depending on context.

F. Finite vs. Non-Finite Verbs

Finite Verbs Non-Finite Verbs
Show tense, number, agreement Do not show tense
Example: She runs. Example: to run, running, run
Serve as main verbs in clauses Serve as complements or modifiers

G. Summary Formulae
• Inflection = grammatical modification.
• Derivation = new word creation.
• Function words = structure; Content words = meaning.
• Open classes evolve; Closed classes stabilize.
• Form ≠ Function — role is contextual.

XIX. SUMMARY TABLES AND QUICK REFERENCE

A concise collection of the most important systems for review.

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A. Verb Tense Chart (Active Voice)
Tense Example (write) Time/Use
Simple Present writes habitual, general truth
Simple Past wrote completed past action
Simple Future will write future action
Present Continuous is writing ongoing action
Past Continuous was writing ongoing past action
Future Continuous will be writing ongoing future action
Present Perfect has written completed action with relevance to present
Past Perfect had written completed before another past action
Future Perfect will have written completed before a specific future time
Present Perfect Continuous has been writing action that began in past and continues
Past Perfect Continuous had been writing ongoing past before another past
Future Perfect Continuous will have been writing ongoing future before another future point

B. Degrees of Comparison (Adjectives & Adverbs)

Degree Form Example
Positive basic tall
Comparative +er / more taller / more beautiful
Superlative +est / most tallest / most beautiful
Irregular Forms:
• good → better → best
• bad → worse → worst
• far → farther/further → farthest/furthest

C. Pronoun Types Overview

Type Function Examples
Personal refer to people or things I, you, he, she, it, we, they
Reflexive reflect back to subject myself, yourself, herself
Demonstrative point out this, that, these, those
Interrogative ask questions who, whom, whose, which, what
Relative introduce clauses who, which, that
Indefinite nonspecific reference someone, anyone, each, few, many
Reciprocal mutual action each other, one another

D. Auxiliary and Modal Verbs

Type Examples Function
Primary be, have, do form tenses, voices, questions
Auxiliaries
Modal can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, express mood, possibility,
Auxiliaries would, must obligation
Semi-modals need to, have to, ought to, used to, dare to similar to modals, use infinitive
after

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 after

E. Morpheme Classification Table

Type Example Meaning
Free lexical book, jump independent meaning
Free functional and, the, in structural
Bound inflectional -s, -ed, -ing grammatical change
Bound derivational un-, -ness, -ful create new word

F. Sentence Structure Patterns

Sentence Type Structure Example
Simple one clause The dog barked.
Compound two independent clauses The dog barked, and the cat ran.
Complex one independent + one dependent The dog barked when I arrived.
clause
Compound– at least two independent + one The dog barked, and the cat ran when
Complex dependent clause I arrived.

G. Quick Concept Review

• Noun: names a thing
• Verb: shows action or state
• Adjective: describes noun
• Adverb: modifies verb or adjective
• Preposition: shows relationship
• Conjunction: connects ideas
• Determiner: introduces noun
• Pronoun: replaces noun
• Interjection: expresses emotion

FINAL SYNTHESIS
English grammar operates on four interlocking systems:
1. Lexical System – the vocabulary base (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs)
2. Morphological System – how words change form (inflection, derivation)
3. Syntactic System – how words combine into phrases and clauses
4. Semantic-Pragmatic System – how meaning and use interact in real context
Together they govern form, meaning, and function, allowing infinite expression through finite
structures.

End Summary:
○ Grammar = system of patterns + meaning.
○ Lexicon = words; Morphology = word form; Syntax = word order; Semantics = meaning;
Pragmatics = use.
○ Mastery = understanding form, function, and flexibility of every part.

XX. MASTER REVIEW AND STUDY SUMMARY

A. The Core of English Grammar
English grammar is a structural and semantic system built on words, forms, and patterns.
It operates through three primary levels:

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It operates through three primary levels:
1. Lexical — vocabulary and meaning (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs)
2. Morphological — how words change form to express grammatical meaning
3. Syntactic — how words combine into meaningful sentences
Together, these determine how ideas are represented, connected, and understood.

B. The Lexical System (Parts of Speech)

1. Content Words (Open Classes)
• Nouns: name entities (teacher, idea, city)
• Verbs: show actions or states (run, be, think)
• Adjectives: describe qualities (tall, smart, red)
• Adverbs: modify verbs/adjectives (quickly, very, often)
2. Function Words (Closed Classes)
• Pronouns: replace nouns (he, which, they)
• Prepositions: show relationships (in, at, to)
• Conjunctions: connect clauses (and, because, although)
• Determiners: specify nouns (the, my, some)
• Auxiliaries: help main verbs (be, have, do)
• Particles/Interjections: add structure or emotion (up, off, oh, wow)

C. The Morphological System

1. Morphemes
• Smallest units of meaning.
○ Free morphemes: stand alone (book, run)
○ Bound morphemes: attached (-s, -ed, un-)
○ Lexical morphemes: carry meaning (beauty, jump)
○ Functional morphemes: serve grammar (the, of)
2. Affixation
• Prefix: before root (unhappy)
• Suffix: after root (happiness)
• Infix: inserted (rare in English)
• Circumfix: surrounds root (not typical in English)
3. Inflection vs. Derivation
• Inflection: grammatical change (walk → walks)
• Derivation: new word (happy → happiness)
4. Word-Formation Processes
• Compounding (toothbrush, classroom)
• Conversion (to email, to Google)
• Clipping (exam, phone)
• Blending (brunch, smog)
• Acronyms (NASA, ASAP)
• Reduplication (bye-bye, chit-chat)

D. The Syntactic System (Sentence Structure)

1. Sentence Elements
• Subject – who or what the sentence is about
• Predicate – what is said about the subject
• Object – receives action (direct/indirect)
• Complement – completes meaning (subject or object complement)
• Modifier/Adjunct – provides additional information
2. Phrases
• Noun Phrase (the tall boy)

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 • Noun Phrase (the tall boy)
• Verb Phrase (is running fast)
• Adjective Phrase (very intelligent)
• Adverb Phrase (quite quickly)
• Prepositional Phrase (in the park)
• Non-finite Phrases (gerund, infinitive, participial)
3. Clauses
• Independent: complete meaning (I left.)
• Dependent: needs main clause (because I was tired.)
• Relative: modify nouns (The man who called.)
• Noun Clause: acts as subject/object (What you said matters.)
4. Sentence Types
• Simple: one clause (She smiled.)
• Compound: two independent (She smiled, and he waved.)
• Complex: one independent + one dependent (She smiled because he waved.)
• Compound–Complex: both combined (She smiled, and he waved when she called.)

E. The Verbal System

1. Verb Forms
• Base, -s, Past, Present Participle (-ing), Past Participle
(go, goes, went, going, gone)
2. Voice
• Active: subject performs action (She wrote a letter.)
• Passive: subject receives action (A letter was written.)
3. Mood
• Indicative: statement of fact
• Imperative: command
• Subjunctive: wish or hypothetical
4. Transitivity
• Transitive: needs object (She read a book.)
• Intransitive: no object (He sleeps.)
• Ditransitive: two objects (She gave him a gift.)
5. Auxiliaries
• Primary: be, have, do
• Modals: can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must
• Semi-modals: have to, need to, used to, ought to

F. Tense, Aspect, and Time

1. Time vs. Tense vs. Aspect
• Time: actual period (past/present/future)
• Tense: grammatical marker (walked, walks)
• Aspect: viewpoint (progressive, perfect)
2. Twelve Tense-Aspect Combinations
• Simple (Present, Past, Future)
• Progressive (am writing)
• Perfect (have written)
• Perfect Progressive (have been writing)
3. Future Expressions
• will/shall + base, be going to + base, present continuous, simple present (for scheduled events)

G. Non-Finite Forms

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G. Non-Finite Forms
Form Structure Example
Infinitive to + base to study
Gerund verb + -ing studying
Present Participle verb + -ing running
Past Participle verb + -ed / irregular eaten
Perfect Participle having + past participle having finished

H. Agreement and Concord

• Subject–Verb Agreement: singular/plural match (He runs / They run)
• Pronoun–Antecedent: gender/number match (Each student must bring his ID.)
• Tense Consistency: uniform tense in sequence (She said she was tired.)

I. Comparison and Adjectives

• Positive: tall
• Comparative: taller
• Superlative: tallest
• Irregular: good → better → best

J. The Pronoun and Determiner Systems

• Pronouns: personal (I), reflexive (myself), demonstrative (this), interrogative (who), relative
(that), indefinite (someone)
• Determiners: articles (the/a), demonstratives (this/that), possessives (my, your), quantifiers
(some, many), numerals (one, two)

K. Question Structures
• Yes/No: Do you like tea?
• Wh-questions: Where are you going?
• Tag questions: You’re ready, aren’t you?
• Indirect: He asked where I was.

L. Sentence Functions
Type Purpose Example
Declarative statement She is a doctor.
Interrogative question Is she a doctor?
Imperative command Be quiet.
Exclamatory emotion What a surprise!

M. Word Relations and Meaning

• Synonyms: big/large
• Antonyms: hot/cold
• Homonyms: bank (river / money)
• Homophones: two/too/to
• Polysemy: head (body part / leader)
• Idioms: kick the bucket, break the ice
• Collocations: make a decision, heavy rain

N. Summary Systems
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N. Summary Systems
Concept Definition Example
Inflection grammatical form change cat → cats
Derivation new word creation kind → kindness
Finite Verb shows tense/agreement She runs.
Non-Finite Verb not marked for tense to run, running
Content Word carries meaning happy, book
Function Word structure word of, the, and

O. Essential Grammar Principles

• Grammar = structure, meaning, function.
• Lexicon = vocabulary (open class); Grammar = system (closed class).
• Meaning flows from morphology + syntax + context.
• Every sentence must have a subject and predicate.
• Accurate writing depends on agreement, tense consistency, and clear modifiers.

P. Final Condensed Review (One-Line Per Topic)

• Word Classes: 8 parts of speech.
• Morpheme: smallest meaning unit.
• Inflection: grammar change.
• Derivation: word creation.
• Phrase: group of related words.
• Clause: contains a subject + verb.
• Sentence: expresses complete thought.
• Voice: active or passive.
• Mood: indicative, imperative, subjunctive.
• Tense: time of action.
• Aspect: progress/completion.
• Agreement: grammatical harmony.
• Comparison: positive–comparative–superlative.
• Pronouns/Determiners: reference and specification.
• Questions: wh-, yes/no, tag, indirect.
• Sentence Function: declare, ask, command, exclaim.
• Meaning Relations: synonymy, antonymy, polysemy, collocation.
• Core Principle: every structure carries function and meaning.

Ultimate Takeaway:
Grammar = pattern + meaning + logic.
Lexicon provides words; morphology shapes them; syntax orders them; semantics interprets
them.
Together, they form the complete system of English expression.

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