Module-2 Quantum Materials and Polymers

Quantum Dots: Introduction, size dependent properties-quantum confinement effect, surface-to-

volume ratio & band gap. Synthesis of Cd-Se Quantum dots by wet chemical method and its
applications. Construction, working principle and applications of quantum dot sensitized solar cells
(QDSSCs).
Polymer: Introduction, number average and weight average molecular weight of the polymers and
numerical problems. Structure-properties relationship of polymers (Crystallinity, Strength,
Elasticity and chemical resistivity]. Synthesis and properties of nylon- 6,6 and its advantages in 3D
printing applications. Synthesis and properties of chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC), and
polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) and their uses in device applications.
Conducting polymers- Introduction, synthesis of polyaniline, conduction mechanism and its
engineering applications.

Polymers

Introduction

Polymers are macromolecules that have high molecular mass built up by linkage together of a large
number of small molecules called monomers. In Greek Poly means many, mers means units or
parts. The molecular mass of polymers is high and ranges from 10,000 to 1,00,000.

Example: Polythene is a polymer formed by linkage of large number of ethylene.

Polymerization: The chemical process in which the monomers are converted into polymers is
called Polymerization.

Degree of Polymerization: The number of times the unit is repeated in a homopolymer chain is
referred to as the degree of polymerization. High polymers have high degree of polymerization.

Addition polymerization: It is a process in which unsaturated monomers, typically containing

double or triple carbon-carbon bonds, repeatedly join together to form long polymer chains without
the elimination of any byproducts.

o Polyethylene (from ethene)

o Polypropylene (from propene)
o PVC (polyvinyl chloride, from vinyl chloride)

Condensation polymerization: The polymerization process involves the reaction of bifunctional

or multifunctional monomers, each containing two or more reactive groups such as –OH, –COOH,
or –NH₂. During the formation of the polymer, small molecules like water, hydrochloric acid, or
methanol are eliminated as byproducts.

 Nylon (e.g., Nylon-6,6 from hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid)

 Terylene / PET (from ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid)
 Bakelite (from phenol and formaldehyde)

Molecular Mass of Polymer:

The substances like water, ammonia, benzene, etc., are monodispersed in nature i.e., their
molecules have same size whereas polymers contain molecules of different size depending on their
chain length. Therefore polymers supposed to have average molecular mass. The average
molecular mass can be calculated in two ways viz.

i) Number-average molecular mass (Mn)

ii) Weight-average molecular mass (Mw)

Number-average molecular mass (Mn): It is the ratio of total mass of all the molecules of a
sample to the total number of molecules.

Ex;- in a polymer sample, Suppose

N1 molecules have molecular mass M1 each.

N2 molecules have molecular mass M2 each.

In general, Ni molecules have molecular mass Mi [Link],

Total mass of all the N1 molecules = N1M1

Total mass of all the N2 molecules = N2M2

In general, Total mass of all the Ni molecules = NiMi

Weight-average molecular mass (Mw): It is the ratio of products of total mass of groups of
molecules to the total mass of all molecules.

Polydispersity Index: It is the measure of number of molecular species having different sizes, equal
to the ratio of weight average molecular mass to number average molecular mass.
Problems:
[Link] a sample of a polymer, 100 molecules have molecular mass 10 3 g/mol, 250 molecules have
molecular mass 104 g/mol, and 300 molecules have molecular mass 10 5 g /mol, calculate the
number average and weight average molecular mass of the polymer, Calculate PDI and comment
on it.
Solution. It is given that,
N1 =100 & M1 = 103g/mol,
N2 =250 & M1 = 104 g/mol,
N3 =300 & M1 = 105 g/mol.
The number average molecular mass of the polymer is given by

Mn=
∑ NiMi
∑ Ni
N 1 M 1 + N 2 M 2 + N 3 M 3 100 X 103 + 250 X 104 + 300 X 105
= =
N 1 + N 2 + N 3 . .. 100 + 250 +300 =50153 g / mol
The weight average molecular mass of the polymer is given by

Mw=
∑ Ni Mi 2
∑ Ni Mi
N1 M + N2 M + N3 M
12 22 32
M W=
N1 M1 + N2 M2 + N 3 M3
100 X (103 ) 2 +250 X (10 4 )2 +300 X (105 )2
M W= =92794 g /mol
100 X 10 3 +250 X 104 + 300 X 10 5
Mw 92794
= ==1.85
Poly dispersity index, PDI Mn 50100
PDI >1 ,the given polymer is less homogeneous and poly disperse in nature.

2. In a sample of a polymer, 20% molecules have molecular mass 15000 g/mol, 35% molecules
have molecular mass 25000 g/mol, and remaining molecules have molecular mass 20000 g /mol,
calculate the number average and weight average molecular mass of the polymer, Calculate PDI
and comment on it.
Solution. It is given that,
N1 =20 & M1 = 15000g/mol,
N2 =35 & M1 = 25000g/mol,
N3 =45 & M1 = 20000 g/mol.
The number average molecular mass of the polymer is given by

Mn=
∑ NiMi N 1 M 1 + N 2 M 2 + N 3 M 3
=
∑ Ni N 1 + N 2 + N 3 . ..
20 X 15000 + 35 X 25000 + 45 X 20000
= = 20750 g/ mol
20 + 35+ 45
The weight average molecular mass of the polymer is given by

Mw=
∑ Ni Mi 2
∑ Ni Mi
N1 M + N2 M + N3 M
12 22 32
M W=
N1 M1 + N2 M2 + N 3 M3
20 X (15000 ) 2 +35 X (25000)2 +45 X (20000)2
M W= =21385 g /mol
20 X 15000 +35 X 25000 + 45 X 20000
 Mw 21385
= = =1.03
Poly dispersity index, PDI Mn 20750
PDI >1 ,the given polymer is less homogeneous and poly disperse in nature.
Structure-properties relationship of polymers

Crystallinity
 Polymer crystallinity, a measure of chain order, strongly influences mechanical and thermal
properties: higher crystallinity increases strength, stiffness, and heat resistance but decreases
transparency and solubility, while amorphous regions contribute to flexibility.
 Linear, regular, and highly structured polymer chains facilitate crystallization, leading to more
crystalline materials, whereas branching, cross-linking, and structural irregularities
like atactic configurations promote amorphous behavior.
 Controlling factors like molecular weight, cooling rate, and the presence of bulky side groups
allows for tailoring a polymer's degree of crystallinity and, consequently, its properties.
 High crystallinity makes polymers stronger, stiffer, opaquer, and less soluble in solvents.
 As crystalline increases, solubility decreases.
Strength

 Tensile strength is the maximum stress that the material can withstand. Tensile strength of a
polymer depends on the molecular weight. Tensile strength increases with molecular weight up
to 2,000 and thereafter increase is negligible.
 Polymer strength increases with stronger intermolecular forces, higher molecular weight, more
extensive crosslinking, and greater crystallinity due to restricted chain movement.
 Linear and crosslinked structures are stronger than branched ones, while molecular
entanglements also contribute to strength.
 Structural factors like rigid aromatic rings or side groups hinder chain movement, enhancing
strength and stiffness, whereas a higher degree of chain orientation, like in a drawn polymer,
can also significantly increase tensile strength.

Elasticity

Elasticity is the ability of a polymer to stretch when a force is applied and to return to its original
shape when the force is removed. This behavior occurs because the molecular chains uncoil during
stretching and recoil when the force is released. Polymers exhibit elasticity as long as the chains do
not separate from each other, preventing breakage during extended stretching.

Elasticity can be enhanced by:

 Introducing cross-links at appropriate molecular positions to connect the chains,

 Avoiding bulky groups such as aromatic and cyclic structures in the repeating units, which
hinder chain movement,

 Incorporating more non-polar groups in the chain to increase cohesion between chains, thereby
reducing chain separation during stretching.

Chemical resistivity
 Chemical resistivity of a polymer refers to its ability to resist swelling, softening, dissolving,
and loss of strength when exposed to solvents or chemicals.
 Polymers containing polar groups such as –OH or –COOH are typically dissolved by polar
solvents like water or alcohols.
 Polymers with non-polar groups such as –CH₃ and C₆H₅ are not easily dissolved by polar
solvents but dissolve readily in non-polar solvents like petrol, benzene, and carbon
tetrachloride.
 Polymers with a higher degree of crystallinity exhibit greater chemical resistance than their
amorphous counterparts.
 Chemical resistivity increases as the degree of cross-linking in the polymer structure
increases.

Nylon-6,6:
Nylon-6,6 is produced when equal amounts of adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine undergo
polycondensation reaction with form an amide bond, releasing water as a byproduct.

𝑛 HOOC-(CH2)4 − COOH + 𝑛 H2N-(CH2)6 − NH2 → [−OC-(CH2)4 − CO-NH-(CH2)6 − NH −]𝑛 + (2𝑛 − 1)

H2O
Adipic acid Hexamethylene diamine Nylon 6,6

Properties of Nylon-6,6 (Simple Bullet Points):

 Very strong and can handle heavy loads.
 Hard to stretch or break.
 Does not wear out easily, even with movement.
 Can handle high heat (up to 255–265°C).
 Resists oils, greases, and many chemicals.
 Light in weight (lighter than many metals).
 Absorbs less moisture than other plastics.
Advantages in 3D Printing:
 Makes strong, flexible, and tough printed parts.
 Works well for prototypes and mechanical components.
 High melting point prevents warping in hot conditions.
 Durable, even with regular use.
 Resists damage from chemicals and oils—great for industrial parts.

Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride (CPVC):

Synthesis of CPVC is carried out in two main steps as follows:

Step I: Preparation of PVC

Vinyl chloride monomers (VCM) undergo free-radical addition polymerization in the presence of a
peroxide initiator under controlled heat and pressure to form polyvinyl chloride (PVC).

𝒏 𝐂𝐇𝟐 = 𝐂𝐇𝐂𝐥 .............

Heat, Polymerization

..→ [−𝐂𝐇 𝟐 − 𝐂𝐇𝐂𝐥 −]𝒏

Peroxide

Step II: Chlorination of PVC

The obtained PVC is exposed to chlorine gas under UV irradiation, during hydrogen atoms in the
PVC chain are replaced by chlorine atoms, leading to the formation of chlorinated polyvinyl
chloride (CPVC).
 [−𝐂𝐇𝟐 − 𝐂𝐇𝐂𝐥 −]𝒏 + 𝒎 𝐂𝐥𝟐.................→ [−𝐂𝐇𝐂𝐥 − 𝐂𝐇𝐂𝐥 −]𝒏 + 𝒎 𝐇𝐂𝐥
UV light

Properties of CPVC:

 CPVC is stronger and tougher than normal PVC.

 It has higher chlorine content, which makes it more rigid.
 CPVC can withstand higher temperatures (up to about 90–110 °C).
 It has good resistance to corrosion and many chemicals.
 CPVC is fire-retardant due to its high chlorine content.
 It shows good dimensional stability and does not warp easily.
 It is resistant to hot and cold water, so it is used in plumbing.
 CPVC has long service life and good mechanical strength.
 It can be easily processed by extrusion and molding.
Applications of CPVC:

 Hot and cold water plumbing systems – Commonly used in homes and buildings due to heat
and corrosion resistance.
 Industrial fluid and chemical handling – Suitable for transporting corrosive chemicals in
factories.
 Fire sprinkler systems – Can withstand high temperatures and pressure, ideal for fire safety
use.
 Water treatment and distribution – Used in conveying potable and treated water safely.
 Cooling and air systems – Lightweight and leak-proof alternative to metal pipes.
 Agricultural irrigation – Durable and weather-resistant for outdoor water supply networks.

Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) or Plexiglass

PMMA is synthesized by the free-radical bulk polymerization under an inert atmosphere using
methyl methacrylate (MMA) monomers using initiators such as benzoyl peroxide or potassium
persulfate and heat by addition polymerization.

Properties
 Significantly more impact-resistant than glass (up to 10-15 times), although lower than
polycarbonate.

 High tensile and flexural strength.

 High scratch resistance, with a higher pencil hardness rating (5H) compared to polycarbonate
(HB).
 When it breaks, it fractures into dull-edged pieces instead of sharp shards, which is a safety
benefit.
 Good resistance to many chemicals, but can be damaged by organic solvents.

 Can be easily machined, milled, and polished.

 It is recyclable, though it is often categorized as "other" (number 7) and may require specialized
facilities.

PMMA in Device Applications

 Optical devices: Used in lenses, optical fibers, and light guides due to high transparency.
 Display panels: Utilized in LCD and LED screens for light transmission.
 Medical devices: Applied in intraocular lenses, bone cement, and dentures.
 Solar cells: As a transparent protective layer and encapsulant.
 Microfluidic devices: Due to easy machining and chemical resistance.
 Automobile parts: Headlight covers and indicator lamps because of clarity and weather
resistance.
 Protective shields: Used as a glass substitute in safety windows and aquariums.

Conducting Polymers

Conducting polymers are obtained by doping an oxidizing or a reducing agent into organic
polymers with conjugated backbone consisting of alternating double and single carbon – carbon
bonds.

Conducting polymers are classified as extrinsic and intrinsic conducting polymers. Extrinsic
conducting polymers are prepared by mixing polymers with conducting fillers like metal fibres,
metal oxides, carbon black etc. In these polymers’ conductivity is not due to matrix polymer but
due to added conducting fillers. In intrinsic conducting polymers, conductivity is due to organic
polymers themselves which start conducting upon doping with suitable agents.

The important doping methods are

a) Oxidative doping (p-type doping): The polymer is treated with an oxidizing agent like
iodine, aluminium chloride, perchloric acid etc. Oxidizing agent takes away electrons from π- back
bone of the chain creating a hole. Thus, polymer becomes p-type conductor as it conducts by the
movement of holes.

b) Reductive doping (n-type doping): The polymer is treated with a reducing agent like
sodiumor lithium naphthalids. Reducing agents supplies electrons to π- back bone of the chain.
The polymer becomes n-type conductor as it conducts by free mobile electrons.
Synthesis of Polyaniline:

When n number of aniline molecules undergo oxidative polymerization in presence of dil HCl and
ammonium persulfate to form polyaniline.

n C6H5NH2 + 2n (NH4)2S2O8 + n HCl → (C6H4NH)n + 2n (NH4)HSO4

Mechanism of conduction in Polyaniline (PANI)

Conducting form of polyaniline is obtained from emaraldine base consisting of equal proportions
of amines (-NH-) and imine (=N-) sites. Protonation of each imine group introduces one positive
charge into polymeric back bone. Positive charges once introduced into polymer chain can easily
move along the chain and are responsible for electrical conductivity.

Emeraldine base is protonated by treating with aqueous HCl (1M). Usually, two nearby imine
sites are protonated to form a bipolaron(Dication salt). The bipolaron then undergoes a further
rearrangement to form two polarons in which positive charges are delocalized as shown in the
reaction scheme. The resulting emeraldine salt has delocalized positive charges in the polymeric
back bone which are responsible for electrical conductivity. Positive charges are compensated by
anions(chloride ions) of the acid. Thus polymer as a whole is electrically neutral but contains
delocalized positive charges on the polymer structure which conducts an electric current. This
type of protonic acid doping increases the conductivity of polyaniline by 9 to 10 times.
Applications:

 Conductive coatings for electronics and textiles (antistatic applications).

 Corrosion protection on metals through protective coatings.
 Chemical and biosensors for detecting gases, humidity, and biomolecules.
 Electrode material in batteries, supercapacitors, and rechargeable devices.
 Flexible electronics such as OLEDs, wearable sensors, and smart textiles.
 Electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding in electronic devices.
 Environmental and biomedical applications, including water purification and drug
delivery.

Quantum Dots

Introduction

Quantum dots are tiny semiconductor particles. They measure between 2 and 10 nanometers in
diameter. We can think of them as artificial individual atoms which can be designed and engineered
to have specific properties. Quantum dots are usually made from semiconductor materials like
cadmium selenide (CdSe), lead sulfide (PbS), Indium arsenide (InAs), or even silicon.

The name Quantum Dots comes from two key characteristics. "Quantum" refers to quantum
mechanics, the physics that describes how matter behaves at very small scales. They're called
"quantum" because their behavior is governed by quantum mechanics. They're called "dots"
because they confine electrons in all three spatial dimensions, like trapping marbles in a tiny box.

Bulk materials have fixed size independent properties. But, in Quantum dots, we can tune the
properties by simply changing their size. Make a quantum dot a little bigger or smaller, and it might
emit a completely different color of light or conduct electricity differently. This controllability
makes them incredibly versatile for technology applications. Quantum dots can be prepared from
simple chemical reactions using processes similar to growing crystals, but with precise control over
experimental parameters to control the final size of the particle. We can obtain the exact size which
will determine the quantum dot's properties.

The Quantum Confinement Effect

The quantum confinement effect explains why quantum dots behave differently from larger
materials.

Movement of Electrons:

In a bulk piece of semiconductor material - like a silicon chip - electrons can move relatively
freely throughout the material. Because the material is much larger than the natural wavelength of
the electrons, these electrons don't "feel" the boundaries of the material. In bulk semiconductors,
electrons exist in energy bands. The valence band is filled with electrons that are bound to atoms,
while the conduction band contains electrons that are free to move and conduct electricity.
Between these bands is the band gap - an energy range where electrons cannot exist.

When materials shrink to nanometer sizes of 2-10 nm (Quantum Dots), electrons get squeezed into
a very small space. The material size becomes similar to the electron wavelength. Instead of
having continuous energy bands like in bulk materials, the electrons can only occupy specific,
discrete energy levels. Their energy levels become quantized. The electrons are confined to such a
small discrete energy levels. This effect is called as the quantum confinement effect. The smaller
the quantum dot, the more tightly confined the electrons become. This increases their energy
levels.

The Practical Consequences of this quantum confinement effect are:

 Smaller quantum dots require more energy to excite their electrons

 They emit higher-energy (shorter wavelength, bluer) light

 They have different electrical conductivity properties

 Their chemical reactivity can be different

The remarkable thing is that we can control all these properties just by controlling the size of the
quantum dots during manufacturing.

SIZE-DEPENDENT PROPERTIES

Due to the quantum confinement effect, properties of the quantum dots become size dependent.
Properties are tunable simply by changing the size of quantum dots. This is fundamentally
different from traditional materials engineering, where changing properties usually requires
changing the chemical composition. In traditional bulk materials science, if you want a material
that emits red light instead of blue light, you need to use a completely different chemical
compound. With quantum dots, you can make the same chemical compound emit red light as well
as blue light just by using different size.

Few examples of size-dependent properties of quantum dots are discussed below.

1. Surface-to-Volume Ratio

As materials become smaller, the ratio of surface area to volume increases dramatically. This
affects how they behave.

Consider a cube that's 1 meter on each side. It has:

 Volume: 1 cubic meter

 Surface area: 6 square meters

 Surface-to-volume ratio: 6

Now imagine cutting this cube into smaller cubes, each 1nm on a side:

 Total volume: Still 1 cubic meter

 Total number of cubes:1027

 Total surface area: 6000 square kilometres

 Surface-to-volume ratio: 109.

The same amount of material now has 109 times more surface area.

In quantum dots, which are only a few nanometers in size, a large fraction of all atoms are at or
near the surface. In a 2-nanometer quantum dot, roughly half of all atoms are surface atoms. This
is very different from bulk materials, where surface atoms represent a tiny fraction of the total.
Surface atoms are different from interior atoms because they have fewer neighbors and are more
exposed to the environment. This makes Quantum dots much more chemically reactive than bulk
materials because so many atoms are exposed at the surface. This high reactivity can be useful for
applications like catalysis (speeding up chemical reactions) or sensing (detecting specific
molecules). But, exposure of more atoms makes quantum dots less stable in air or water.

2. Band Gap Engineering

The band gap is one of the most fundamental properties of any semiconductor, determining how it
conducts electricity and interacts with light. In quantum dots, we can engineer this property
precisely by controlling its size. In any semiconductor, electrons exist in two main energy regions:

 Valence band: Where electrons are bound to atoms and cannot move freely.

 Conduction band: Where electrons are free to move and conduct electricity.

The band gap is the energy difference between these two regions. It's like a hurdle that electrons
must jump over to move from being bound to being free to conduct electricity.

In bulk semiconductor materials, the band gap is fixed by the material's chemical composition:

 Silicon always has a band gap of 1.1 eV

 Gallium arsenide always has a band gap of 1.4 eV

 Cadmium selenide always has a band gap of 1.7 eV

But in quantum dots, the effective band gap increases as the dot size decreases due to quantum
confinement. This means we can tune the band gap continuously by changing the size during
manufacturing.

There are many Practical Applications of quantum dots due to this Band Gap Control:

 Displays: Different sized quantum dots produce pure red, green, and blue colors.

 Solar cells: Band gaps can be optimized to match different parts of the solar spectrum.

 QD-LEDs: Any color in the visible spectrum can be produced.

 Photodetectors (Sensors): Sensitivity can be tuned to specific wavelengths.

SYNTHESIS OF CdSe QUANTUM DOTS BY WET CHEMICAL METHOD

In this method, cadmium selenide (CdSe) quantum dots are synthesized through a water-based
chemical reaction at relatively low temperatures. The process involves forming a cadmium
complex, preparing a selenium source, combining them to form quantum dots, and then purifying
the final product. The following steps are involved in the process:

Step 1: Ligand Complexation: Dissolve cadmium chloride (CdCl₂) in distilled water to create a
clear solution. Next, add thioglycolic acid (TGA) to this solution in a specific ratio - you need 2 to
4 molecules of TGA for every 1 cadmium atom. The TGA acts as a protective coating that will
surround the quantum dots and prevent them from clumping together. After mixing these
chemicals, adjust the pH of the solution to approximately 11 using sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
solution. This high pH causes the cadmium and thioglycolic acid to form a stable complex,
resulting in a clear solution that’s ready for the next step.

Step 2: Prepare Selenium Source: Prepare the selenium source by making sodium hydrogen
selenide (NaHSe) through a chemical reduction reaction. Mix selenium powder with sodium
borohydride (NaBH₄) in water while keeping the entire setup under an inert gas atmosphere (like
nitrogen or argon) to prevent unwanted reactions with oxygen. The sodium borohydride acts as a
reducing agent that converts the selenium powder into a soluble form that can react with cadmium.
This reaction must be done carefully under inert conditions because selenium compounds can be
sensitive to air and moisture.

Step 3: Quantum Dot Formation: Add the freshly prepared NaHSe solution drop by drop to the
cadmium-thiolate solution while continuously stirring at room temperature. You'll immediately
notice color changes as the quantum dots begin to form – the solution typically changes from clear
to yellow, orange, or red depending on the size of the quantum dots being formed. After the
injection is complete, heat the mixture to a temperature between 60–90°C for a controlled amount
of time to allow the quantum dots to grow to the desired size. Lower temperatures and shorter
times produce smaller, blue-emitting dots, while higher temperatures and longer times create
larger, red-emitting dots.

Step 4: Purification and Collection: Once the quantum dots have reached the desired size, purify
them by adding ethanol to the reaction mixture, which causes the quantum dots to precipitate out of
solution. Collect the precipitated quantum dots through centrifugation or filtration, then wash them
several times with ethanol to remove any unreacted starting materials and byproducts. Finally, dry
the purified CdSe quantum dots under vacuum or in an oven at low temperature to obtain the final
product as a solid powder that can be stored or redispersed in various solvents for different
applications.

Advantages of this method

This aqueous synthesis method offers several advantages over traditional high-temperature organic
methods. It operates at much lower temperatures (60–90°C instead of 300°C), uses water instead of
toxic organic solvents, and provides good control over quantum dot size through temperature and
time adjustments. The thioglycolic acid ligands make the quantum dots water-soluble, which is
useful for biological applications, and the entire process can be completed in a regular chemistry
laboratory without specialized high-temperature equipment.

Quantum dots-sensitized solar cells (QDSCs):

Quantum dot solar cell (QDSC) is a solar cell design that uses quantum dots as the light absorbing
photovoltaic material.
 Quantum dots are special class of semiconductors and are nano crystals.
 The energy band gap increases with decrease in size of quantum dots.
 The adjustable band gap of quantum dots allows the construction of nano structured solar cell, that is
able to harvest maximum amount of solar spectrum.
 QDSSCs how potential to become alternative to presently using silicon based solar cells this is due to
unique property of QDs, like wide tunable band gap.
 The QDs are the source of current injection.

Properties:
 High efficiency: QDSSCs can achieve high conversion efficiencies due to their ability to absorb a
broader range of the solar spectrum compared to conventional solar cells.
 Size tunability: The optical and electronic properties of QDs can be tuned by adjusting their size,
making them highly versatile for use in various applications.
 Low cost: QDSSCs are relatively low-cost to produce compared to other types of solar cells, which
makes them attractive for large-scale commercialization.

Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSC’s):

QDSSC devices generate electrical power when irradiated with sunlight.

 QDSSC consists of three essential components, namely photoanode (TiO2/QDs film),

electrolyte containing redox couple and counter electrode.
 On illumination with sunlight, photons are captured by QDs and yielding electron-hole
pairs.
 Electron-hole pairs rapidly separated into electrons and holes at the interface between the
nanocrystalline TiO2 and the QDs.
 The electrons injected into the TiO2 film and the holes are released by redox couples in the
liquid poly sulfide electrolyte.
 The excited QD injects the electrons from its valence band (VB) to conduction band (CB) of
the wide band gap semiconductor (TiO2).
 From there electron travels through the external load and complete the circuit by entering
back through the counter electrode.
 The generated voltage is perceived as an evidence of the solar energy conversion to electric
energy.

Applications:
 Portable devices: QDSSCs can be used to power portable electronic devices.
 Building-integrated photovoltaic's (BIPV): QDSSCs can be integrated into the windows and
walls of buildings to generate electricity.
 Military applications: Due to their light weight, flexibility, and ability to operate in low- light
conditions.
 Space applications: QDSSCs could be used to power space vehicles and satellites.