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Solid Waste Generation and Collection Rates

Knowledge of the quantities of SWs generated, separated for recycling, and collected for further
processing or disposal is of fundamental importance to all aspects of SWM.
The point that are discussed in this topic are:

ü Importance of the waste quantities

ü Measures and methods used to quantify SW quantities
ü Waste generation rates
ü Factors that affect waste generation and collection rates
ü Types and quantities of materials recovered from MSW
ü Quantities of household hazardous wastes
ü Waste characterization and diversion studies

Importance of waste quantities

The quantities of SW generated and collected are of critical importance

ü in determining compliance with federal and state waste diversion programs
ü in selecting specific equipment and
ü in designing of
• waste collection routes,
• materials recovery facilities (MRFs), and
• disposal facilities.
Compliance with federal and state diversion programs
Information on the total quantity of MSW as well as the quantity of waste that is now recycled or otherwise does
not become part of the waste stream will be required to establish and assess the performance of mandated
recycling programs.
For example-
If a 25% level of recycling is mandated, the following question must be answered:
ü Is the 25% based on the actual quantity generated, or is based on the amount currently collected?
ü If a high percentage of the waste now generated is already recycled, then a 25% reduction in the amount
collected may be difficult to achieve

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Design of SWM facilities

As the diversion and recycling of waste materials increase, the quantities of waste generated, separated for recycling,
collected, and ultimately requiring disposal in landfills become factors in planning and designing SWM facilities.

For example –
üThe design of special vehicles for the curbside collection of source-separated wastes depends on the quantities of
the individual waste components to be collected.
üThe sizing of MRFs depend on the amount of waste to be collected as well as the variations in the quantities
delivered hourly, daily, weekly and monthly.
üSimilarly the sizing of landfills depends on the amount of residual waste that must be disposed after all the
recyclable materials have been removed.

Measures and Methods used to Assess SW Quantities

Measures used to quantify SW quantities

ü The principal reason for measuring the quantities of SW generated, separated for recycling, and collected for
further processing or disposal is to obtain data that can be used to develop and implement effective SWM
programs.
ü In any SWM study, extreme care must be exercised in deciding what actually needs to be known and in allocating
funds for data collection.

The measures and units used to quantify SW quantities are:

Volume and weight Measurements: both volume and weight are used for the measurement of SW quantities.
Unfortunately, the use of volume as a measure of quantity can be misleading.
• For example- a cubic yard of loose wastes is a different quantity from a cubic yard of wastes that has been
compacted in a collection vehicle, and each of these is different from a cubic yard of wastes that has been
compacted further in a landfill. Accordingly, if volume measurements are to be used, the measured volumes must
be related to either the degree of compaction of the wastes or the sp. wt. of the waste under the condition of
storage.

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ü To avoid confusion, SW quantities should be expressed in terms of weight.

ü Weight is the only accurate basis for records because tonnages can be measured directly, regardless
of the degree of compaction.
ü Weight records are also necessary in the transport of SWs because the quantity that can be hauled
usually is restricted by highway limits rather than by volume.
ü On the other hand, volume and weight are equally important [Link] the capacity of landfills.

Expressions for unit waste generation rates

In addition to knowing the sources and composition of the SWs that must be managed, it is equally important to be
able to develop meaningful ways to express the quantities generated. Suggested units of expression for different
generation sources are

• Because of the relative stability of residential wastes in a given location, the most common unit of
Residential
expression for generation rates is kg/capita.d.

• In the past, expressed in kg/capita.d.

• A more meaningful approach would be to relate the quantities generated to the no. of customers,
Commercial
the dollar value of sales or some similar units.
• Use of such factors would allow comparisons to be made throughout the country
• Ideally, wastes generated from industrial ü pounds per automobile for an automobile
activities should be expressed on the basis of assembly plant
Industrial some repeatable measure of production, such as ü pounds per case for a packing plant
• When and if such data are developed, it will be possible to make meaningful comparisons b/w
similar industrial activities throughout the country

Note, however, that unit generation data for commercial and industrial activities are somewhat limited. Consequently, it
has been advantageous in many cases to use the same units for these activities as those used for residential wastes, as
opposed to the more rational units cited above

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Methods used to estimate waste quantities:

• data generated by conducting a waste characterization study,
Waste quantities are usually
• using previous waste generation data
estimated on the basis of
• some combination of the two approaches.
Methods commonly used to assess solid waste quantities are
(i) load-count analysis
(ii) Weight-volume analysis and
(iii) Materials-balance analysis

Load-count Analysis:
• In this method, the number of individual loads and the corresponding waste characteristics (types of waste,
estimated volume) are noted over a specified period.
• If scales are available, weight data are also recorded.
• Unit generation rates are determined by using the field data and, where necessary, published data.
Weight-volume analysis:
Although the use of detailed weight-volume data obtained by weighing and measuring each load will certainly provide
better information on the sp. wt. of the various forms of SWs at a given location, the question remains: what
information is needed in terms of study objectives.

Material Mass Balance Analysis:

The only way to determine the generation and movement of SWs with any degree of reliability is to perform a detailed
materials balance analysis for each generation source, such as an individual home or a commercial or industrial
activity.

In some cases, the materials balance method of analysis will be required to obtain the data needed to verify
compliance with state-mandated recycling programs

Preparation of materials mass balance:

The approach to be followed in the preparation of a materials mass balance analysis is as follows.
First, draw a system boundary around the unit to be studied. The proper selection of the system boundary is
important because, in many situations, it will be possible to simplify the mass balance computations.
Second, identify all the activities that cross or occur within boundary and affect the generation of wastes.
Third, identify the rate of waste generation associated with each of these activities.
Fourth, using appropriate mathematical relationships, determine the quantity of wastes generated, collected and
stored.

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Fig. Definition sketch for materials balance analysis used to determine SW

generation rates

The materials mass balance can be formulated as follows:

General word statement

Simplified word statement

Symbolic representation

Where,
dM/dt = rate of change of the weight of material stored (accumulated) within the study unit, lb/d
SMin = sum of all of the material flowing into study unit, lb/d
SMout = sum of all of the material flowing out of study unit, lb/d
rw = rate of waste generation, lb/d
t =time, d

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In some biological transformation processes (e.g. composting) the weight of organic matter will be reduced and,
therefore, the term rw will be negative.

In writing the mass balance equation the rate should always be written as positive term. The correct sign for the
term will be added when the appropriate rate expression is substituted for rw.

Before substituting numerical values in any mass balance expression, a unit check should always be made to ensure
that units of the individual quantities are consistent.

The analytical procedures used for the solution of mass balance equations usually are governed by the mathematical
form of the final expression.

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Summary Table

Method Focus Data Needed Best For

Avg. weight/volume Quick estimation at

Load-Count Analysis Number of loads
per truck landfills

Weight-Volume Volume and weight Designing

Waste density
Analysis measurements collection/transport

Estimating waste
Materials-Balance System-wide material
Input vs. output mass when direct data is
Analysis data
limited

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Statistical Analysis of Measured Waste Quantities

In developing SWMSs, it is often necessary to determine the statistical characteristics of the observed SW generation
rates.

ü For example, for many large industrial activities it would be impractical to provide container capacity to handle
the largest conceivable quantity of SWs to be generated in a given day. The container capacity to be provided
must be based on a statistical analysis of the generation rates and the characteristics of the collection system.
ü The first step in assessing the statistical characteristics of a series of observations is to determine whether the
observations are distributed normally or are skewed.
ü The nature of the distribution can be determined most readily by plotting the data on arithmetic and logarithmic
probability graph paper. The vertical axis typically represents the variable of interest (e.g., values or categories),
and the horizontal axis represents the probability associated with each value or category
ü Once the nature of the distribution is known, statistical measures that are used to describe the distribution
include: the mean, median, mode, standard deviation, coefficient of variation, coefficient of skewness and,
coefficient of kurtosis.

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Graphical Analysis of field Data

For most practical purposes, the type of the distribution can be determined by plotting the data on both arithmetic
and logarithmic probability paper and noting whether the data can be fitted with a straight line.

Probability Paper
Although it is possible to express the summation or probability curve in equation form, it has been found more
useful to develop a type of graph paper, called probability paper, with special coordinates on which data that are
normal or logarithmically normal will plot as a straight line.
Three steps are involved in the use of arithmetic and logarithmic probability paper
ü The measurements in a data set are first arranged in order of increasing magnitude and assigned a rank serial
number
ü Next, a corresponding plotting position is determined for each data point using
ü The data are then plotted on arithmetic and logarithmic probability paper

𝑚 The term (n+1) is used to account for the fact that there may be an
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 % = ∗ 100
𝑛+1 observation that is either larger or smaller than the largest or
smallest in the data set. In effect, the plotting position represents
Where m = rank serial number
the percent or frequency of observations that are equal to or less
n = number of observations
than the indicate value

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Arithmetic Probability Paper

ü whether the data are normally distributed by noting if the data can be fit with a straight line.
Significant departure from a straight line can be taken as an indication of skewness
By plotting
data on ü the approximate magnitude of the arithmetic mean. Usually it will be best to compute the
arithmetic mean and to pass the straight line plotted by eye through the computed value
probability ü the approximate value of the standard deviation by finding the values on the curve at the 84.1
paper, it is (i.e., 50 + 68.27/2) and 15.9 (i.e., 50-68.27/2) percent points and noting that these values
possible to corresponds to (𝑥 ± 𝑠) .
determine
Thus 𝑠 = 𝑃!".$ − 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 − 𝑃$%.&
ü the expected frequency of any observation of a given magnitude

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Logarithmic Probability Paper

When the data are skewed logarithmic probability paper can be used

The implication here is that the logarithm of the observed values is normally distributed

On logarithmic probability paper, the straight line of best fit passes through the geometric mean and through the
intersection of Mg x sg at a value of 84.1 percent and Mg / sg at a value of 15.9 percent

The Geometric standard deviation can be determined from the following equation:

𝑃!".$ 𝑀'
𝑠' = =
𝑀' 𝑃$%.&

Where,
sg = geometric standard deviation
P84.1 = value from curve at 84.1 percent
Mg = Geometric mean
P15.9 = Value from curve at 15.9 percent

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Statistical Measures

Mean
The mean is defined as the arithmetic average of a number of individual or grouped observations. The
mean for grouped observations is given by

Median
If a series of observations are arranged in order of increasing value, the midmost observation, or the
arithmetic mean of the two midmost observations, in a series is known as the median.
For example, in a set of 16 measurements, the median will be the avg. of the 8th and 9th values. In a
symmetrical distribution, the median will equal the mean.

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Mode
The value occurring with the greatest frequency in a set of observations is known as the mode.
If a continuous graph of the frequency distribution is drawn, the mode is the value of the high point, or hump, of the
curve.
In a symmetrical set of observations, the mean , median and mode will be the same value.
The mode can be approximated with reasonable accuracy using the following expression:

Standard Deviation
Because of the laws of chance, there is uncertainty in any set of measurements. The precision of a set of measurements
can be assessed in a number of different ways.
Most commonly, the error of an individual measurement in a set is defined as the difference between the arithmetic
mean and the value of the measurement. The standard deviation for grouped data is defined as follows:

From the form of the equation, it can be concluded that the larger the scatter in a set of
measurements is, the larger the value of ‘s’ will be. Conversely, as the precision of a set of
measurement improves, the value of the standard deviation will decrease.
From theoretical considerations, it can be shown that if the measurements are distributed
normally, then 68.27% of the observations will fall within plus or minus one standard of
deviation of the mean (x±s )

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Coefficient of variation
Although the standard deviation can be used as an indication of the absolute dispersion of a set of measured values,
it provides little or no information about whether the value is large or small. To overcome this difficulty, the
coefficient of variation is used as a relative measure of dispersion

Typically,
ü the coefficient of variation for SW generation rates will vary from 10 to 60 %, to judge whether this percentage
represents a large or small scatter, it can be compared to values obtained from measurements in other fields.
• For measurements in the biological filed, the coefficient of variation will vary from 10 to 30%.
• The coefficient of variation for chemical analysis varies from 2 to 10%.
ü Clearly, the scatter in SW generation data is significant.

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Coefficient of Skewness
When a frequency distribution is asymmetrical it is usually defined as being a skewed frequency distribution. Over the
years, a number of measures of skewness have been proposed, but none is accepted universally. For the purposes of
discussion, skewness is defined by the following relationship:

The coefficient of skewness has also been computed using the following relationship

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Coefficient of Kurtosis
The extent to which a distribution is more peaked or more flat-topped than the normal distribution is defined by the
kurtosis of the distribution. The coefficient of kurtosis can be computed using the following equation

• The value of the kurtosis for a normal distribution is 3.

• A peaked curve will have a value greater than 3
• where as a flatter curve will have a value less than 3.
• The value of a4 that separates mound-shaped curves from rectangular or U-shaped curves is in the range from 1.75
to 1.8.
• values of a4 for U-shaped distributions are less than 1.75

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Skewed Distributions
ü In general, some degree of positive skewness (normal bell-shaped curve is distorted to the left) is common in SW
generation data.
ü Fortunately, most statistical tests based on the normal distribution are robust, and small amounts of skewness
can be tolerated.
ü If the field data are skewed severely, they may have to be rescaled by taking the logarithm or the square root to
make them more normal.
ü The most common statistical measures for skewed distributions are the geometric mean and standard deviation.
These measures are computed as follows

Geometric mean
The geometric mean is defined as the log average of a number of individual measurements and is given by

∑ 𝑓8 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥8
𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑀7 =
𝑛
Where Mg = geometric mean value
fi = frequency (for ungrouped data fi = 1)
xi = the midpoint of the ith data range (for ungrouped data xi = the ith observation)
n = number of observations

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Geometric Standard Deviation

The geometric standard deviation is defined as follows:

∑ 𝑓8 ∗ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑋𝑔 9
𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑠7 =
𝑛−1
Where
sg = geometric standard deviation
fi = frequency (for ungrouped data fi = 1)
Xg = xi/Mg
xi = the midpoint of the ith data range (for ungrouped data xi = the ith observation)
n = number of observations

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Factors that Affect Waste Generation Rates

(i)Source reduction and recycling activities

(ii)Public attitudes and legislation and
(iii)Geographical and physical factors

q Effect of source reduction and recycling activities on waste generation

Source reduction:
ü waste reduction may occur through the design, manufacture, and packaging of products with minimum toxic
content, minimum volume of material, and/or a longer useful life.
ü waste reduction may also occur at the household, commercial or industrial facility through selective buying patterns
and the reuse of products and materials.
ü Because source reduction is not a major element in waste reduction at the present time, it is difficult to estimate
the actual impact that source reduction programs have had (or will have) on the actual quantity of waste
generation.
ü Nevertheless, source reduction will likely become an important factor in reducing the quantity of waste generated
in future.

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For example,
ü if the postage rate for bulk mail were increased significantly, the quantity of bulk mail would be reduced sharply.
other ways in which source reduction can be achieved follow:
ü Decrease unnecessary or excessive packaging
ü Develop and use products with greater durability and reparability
ü Substitute reusable products for disposable, single-use products (e.g., reusable plates and cutlery, refillable
beverage containers, cloth diapers and towels)
ü Use fewer resources (e.g two-sided copying)
ü Increase the recycled materials content of products
ü Develop rate structures that encourage generators to produce less waste.

Extent of recycling: the existence of recycling programs within a community definitely affects the
quantities of wastes collected for further processing or disposal.
ü Whether such operations affect the quantities of waste generated is another question.
ü Until more information is available, no definite statement can be made on this issue.

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Effect of Public Attitudes and Legislation on Waste Generation

Along with source reduction and recycling programs, public attitudes and legislation also significantly
affect the quantities generated.
Public attitudes:
üUltimately, significant reductions in the quantities of SWs generated occur when and if people are willing to
change- of their own volition – their habits and lifestyles to conserve natural resources and to reduce the economic
burdens associated with the management of SWs.
üA program of continuing education is essential in bringing about a change in public attitudes.
States with beverage container deposit laws:
üA number of states now have beverage container deposit laws. The first was enacted in Oregon in 1972.
ü In the states with container deposit laws, the return rates for bottles and cans vary from 93 to 96 %, and 90 to 96
%, respectively. It is anticipated that more states will enact container deposit laws covering a wide variety of
container types not now included.

Legislation:
perhaps the most important factor affecting the generation of certain types of wastes is the existence of
local, state and federal regulations concerning the use of specific materials.
ü Legislation dealing with packaging and beverage container materials is an example.
ü Encouraging the purchase and use of recycled materials by allowing a price differential (typically 5 to 10%) for
recycled materials is another method.

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Effect of Geographic and Physical Factors on Waste Generation

Geographic and physical factors that affect the quantities of waste generated and collected include
ü location,
ü season of the year,
ü the use of kitchen waste food grinders,
ü waste collection frequency, and
ü the characteristics of the service area.
Because broad generalizations are of little or no value, the impact of these factors must of evaluated
separately in each situation.

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Geographical location: geographical location and the different climates can influence both the amount of certain types
of SWs generated and the time period over which wastes are generated.

For example, substantial variations in the amount of yard and garden wastes generated in various parts of the country
are related to climates. That is, in the warmer southern areas, where the growing season is considerably longer than in
the northern areas, yard wastes are collected not only in considerably greater amounts but also over a longer time.
Because of the variations in the quantities of certain types of SWs generated under different climates, special studies
should be conducted when such information will have a significant impact on the system.
Often, the necessary information can be obtained from load-count analysis.

Season of the year: the quantities of certain types of SWs are also affected by the season of the year.
For example, the quantities of food wastes related to the growing season for vegetables and fruits. Because of the
wide variations, seasonal sampling also will be required to assess changes in the percentage distribution of the waste
materials comprising the MSW, especially in areas of the country with extensive vegetation.

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Use of Kitchen Food waste grinders: while the use of kitchen food waste grinders definitely reduces the quantity of
kitchen wastes collected, whether they affect quantities of wastes generated is not clear. Because the use of home
grinders varies widely throughout the country, the effects of their use must be evaluated separately in each situation
if such information is warranted.
Frequency of collection: In general, where unlimited collection service is provided, more wastes are collected. This
observation should not be used to infer that more waste are generated.

For example,
if a homeowner is limited to one or two containers per week, he or she may, because of limited container capacity,
store newspapers or other materials;
with unlimited service, the homeowner would tend to throw them away. In this situation the quantity of wastes
generated may actually be the same, but the quantity collected is considerably different. Thus, the fundamental
question of the effect of collection frequency on waste generation remains unanswered.

Characteristics of service area: peculiarities of the service area can influence the quantity of SWs generated.
For example, the quantities of yard wastes generated on a per capita basis are considerably greater in many of the
wealthier neighborhoods than in other parts of town.
Other factors that will affect the amount of yard waste include the size of the lot, the degree of landscaping, and the
frequency of yard maintenance.

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Quantities of Materials Recovered from MSW

For residential and commercial recycling in the USs estimates vary from about 12 to 16%.
Information on the other sectors is so site-specific that few generalizations are possible.
At the present time, the degree of recycling depends on the type of recycling program
that is in effect and on local regulations.

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Quantities of Household Hazardous wastes

Data on the quantities of hazardous waste are quite variable, depending on the method
used to classify the hazardous waste materials. The quantities were determined on the
basis of their toxicity using the certain criteria. Only those compounds with a toxicity
rating greater then certain values were considered in developing the data.

Because different definitions are used in assessing the quantities of hazardous waste in
municipal waste it is difficult to draw any firm conclusions concerning the actual
quantities involved.

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Waste Characterization and Diversion Studies

As communities across the country strive to comply federal and state mandated diversion
goals, information must be available
ü on the types and quantities of waste generated;
ü on the types and quantities of waste currently separated for recycling, or otherwise diverted from landfill
disposal; and
ü on the types and quantities of waste collected for further processing or disposal.
This information must be developed to define the current situation and to demonstrate that the mandated
recycling goals will be met in the future.

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Waste characterization
the goal of a waste characterization study is to identify the sources, characteristics, and quantities of the waste
generated.
Waste characterization studies are difficult to perform because of the large number of sources and the limited number
of waste samples that can be analyzed.
The typical steps involved in a waste characterization study are as follows.

1. Gather existing information

The use of existing information can save money, time and serve as a cross reference. Existing
information sources include
§ Previous SWM and Planning studies and documents
§ Waste collection company records (public and Private)
§ Processing facility records ( e.g., composting facilities, incineration facilites, etc.)
§ Landfill and transfer station records
§ Previous waste disposal studies
§ Information from comparable communities
§ Department of public works
§ Utilities
§ Retail trade reports
§ Community employment records ( chamber of Commerce)

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2. Identify waste generation source and waste characteristics

Ø Sources
§ Residential commercial
§ Institutional
§ Construction and demolition
§ Municipal services
§ Water and wastewater treatment plants
§ Industrial
§ Agricultural
Ø Develop waste categories. The need for a detailed analysis of the individual waste components
within each waste category will depend on the uses to be made of the information that is to be
gathered.

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3. Develop sampling methodology

§ Sample identification and characteristics including
Sources(s)
Size of sample (e.g., pounds of waste separated)
Number of samples needed for statistical significance
§ Duration of sampling period
§ Time of year
4. Conduct field studies
5. Conduct market surveys for special wastes
6. Assess factors affecting waste generation rates

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Assessment of current waste diversions

The goal of a waste diversion study is to identify the types and quantities of waste materials that are now
separated for recycling or otherwise diverted from disposal in landfills.
The typical steps involved in a waste diversion study are as follows.

1. Gather existing information.

Existing information sources include
§ Previous SWM studies
§ Previous waste diversion studies
§ Curbside recycling programs (public and private)
§ Materials recovery facilities (MRFs)
§ Buy-back centers
§ Drop-off centers
§ Tire and oil recycling centers
§ Private haulers (special waste)
§ Charitable and service organizations

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2. Develop methodology for estimating the quantities of waste now diverted

§ Residential
§ Commercial
§ Institutional
§ Construction and demolition
§ Municipal services
§ Waster and wastewater treatment plants
§ Industrial
§ Agricultural
3. Identify other existing activities
4. Conduct field studies
5. Assess factors affecting waste diversion rates

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Analysis of Total Waste Generated and Diverted

To assess the quantity of waste that is currently diverted, it will be necessary to first develop data on the
total quantity of waste generated.
The total waste generated will be made up of the amount of waste now placed in a landfill and the amount
of waste now diverted.
In determining the amount of waste diverted, a number of ambiguities will arise in the interpretation of
what exactly is waste material. Some states have ruled that the federal-and state-mandated diversion
percentages (i.e., 25 and 50 %) must be based on waste materials that are now discharged to landfills.
Thus, if a material is considered a waste by a discharger, but is now totally recycled it could not be
considered in determining the percentage diversion.

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