Lesson 6 Root Locus Method
Harry M Ngwangwa
Department of Mechanical, Bioresources and Biomedical Engineering
School of Engineering and the Built Environment
College of Science, Engineering and Technology
University of South Africa
ngwanhm@unisa.ac.za
Notes compiled by
Harry M. Ngwangwa
1
Outline
Introduction
The Root Locus Concept
Example 1
The Root Locus Procedure
EXAMPLE 3 Fourth-order system
EXAMPLE 4 Third-order system
2
Introduction
The performance of a feedback system can be described in terms of the
location of the roots of the characteristic equation in the s-plane.
A graph showing how the roots of the characteristic equation move around
the s-plane as a single parameter varies is known as a root locus plot.
The root locus method was introduced by Evans in 1948 and has been
developed and utilized extensively in control engineering practice
The root locus is a powerful tool for designing and analyzing feedback
control systems.
The root locus technique may be used to great advantage in conjunction
with the Routh–Hurwitz criterion.
This is important because we know that the response of a closed-loop
feedback system can be adjusted to achieve the desired performance by
judicious selection of one or more controller parameters. 3
The Root Locus Concept
The dynamic performance of a closed-loop control system is described by
the closed-loop transfer function
(1)
where p(s) and q(s) are polynomials in s.
The roots of the characteristic equation q(s) determine the modes of
response of the system.
In the case of the simple single-loop system shown in Fig. 1, we have the
characteristic equation
(2)
where K is a variable parameter and 0 ≤ 𝐾𝐾 < ∞.
Fig. 1 Closed-loop
c.s. with a variable
parameter K.
4
The characteristic roots of the system must satisfy Eq (2), where the roots
lie in the s-plane.
Because s is a complex variable, Eq (2) may be rewritten in polar form as
(3)
and therefore, it is necessary that
and (4)
where k = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, . . . .
The root locus is the path of the roots of the characteristic equation
traced out in the s-plane as a system parameter varies from zero to
infinity.
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Fig. 2 Unity
feedback c.s. The
gain K is a variable
parameter
Consider the second-order system shown in Fig 2. The characteristic equation
is
(4)
or, alternatively,
(5)
The locus of the roots as the gain K is varied is found by requiring that
(6)
6
and (7)
The gain K is varied from zero to infinity. For a second-order system, the roots
are
(8)
and for 𝜁𝜁 < 1, we know that 𝜃𝜃 = cos −1 𝜁𝜁.
Graphically, for two open-loop poles as shown in Fig. 3, the locus of roots is
a vertical line for 𝜁𝜁 ≤ 1 in order to satisfy the angle requirement, Eq. (7).
For example, as shown in Fig. 4, at a root s1, the angles are
(9)
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Fig. 3 Root locus for a
second-order system when
Ke < K1 < K2. The locus is
shown as heavy lines, with
arrows indicating the
direction of increasing K.
Note that roots of the
characteristic equation are
denoted by “” on
the root locus.
8
This angle requirement is satisfied at any point on the vertical
line that is a perpendicular bisector of the line 0 to −2.
The gain K at the particular points is found by using Eq. (6) as
(10)
where 𝑠𝑠1 is the magnitude of the vector from the origin to 𝑠𝑠1 , and
𝑠𝑠1 + 2 is the magnitude of the vector from −2 to 𝑠𝑠1 .
For a multiloop closed-loop system, using the Mason’s signal-
flow gain formula yields
(11)
where 𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛 equals the value of the nth self-loop transmittance.
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Hence, we have a characteristic equation, which may be written as
(12)
To find the roots of the characteristic equation, we set Eq. (12) equal to
zero and obtain
The roots of the CE must also satisfy this relation.
In general, the function F(s) may be written as
(13)
Then the magnitude and angle requirement for the root locus are
(14)
where k is an integer.
(15)
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The magnitude requirement in Eq. (13) enables us to determine the value of
K for a given root location 𝑠𝑠1 .
A test point in the s-plane, 𝑠𝑠1 , is verified as a root location when Eq. (14) is
satisfied.
All angles are measured in a counterclockwise direction from a horizontal
line.
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Example 1
Consider the second-order system of Fig. 4 where a > 0.
Then the magnitude criterion
is satisfied when
Fig. 4 Single-loop system.
The effect of varying the parameter a
can be effectively portrayed by
rewriting the characteristic equation
for the root locus form with a as the The angle criterion is
multiplying factor in the numerator.
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The Root Locus Procedure
The roots of the characteristic equation of a system provide valuable
insight concerning the response of the system.
To locate the roots of the characteristic equation in a graphical manner
on the s-plane, we develop an orderly procedure of seven steps that
facilitates the rapid sketching of the locus.
Step 1: Prepare the root locus sketch
Begin by writing the characteristic equation as
(16)
Rearrange the equation, if necessary, so that the parameter of
interest, K, appears as the multiplying factor in the form,
(17)
We are interested in determining the locus of roots when K varies as 0 ≤ 𝐾𝐾 ≤ ∞.
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Factor P(s), and write the polynomial in the form of poles and zeros
as follows:
(18)
Locate the poles −𝑝𝑝𝑗𝑗 and zeros −𝑧𝑧𝑖𝑖 on the s-plane with selected
symbols. By convention, we use “x” to denote poles and “o” to denote
zeros.
Rewriting Eq. (18), we have
(19)
When K = 0, the roots of the characteristic equation are the poles of P(s).
(20)
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When solved, this yields the values of s that coincide with the poles of
P(s).
Conversely, as 𝐾𝐾 → ∞, the roots of the characteristic equation are the
zeros of P(s). See Eq. (21)
(21)
When solved, this yields the values of s that coincide with the zeros of
P(s).
Therefore, we note that the locus of the roots of the characteristic
equation 1 + KP(s) = 0 begins at the poles of P(s) and ends at the
zeros of P(s) as K increases from zero to infinity.
With n poles and M zeros and n > M, we have n− M branches of the root
locus approaching the n− M zeros at infinity.
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Step 2: Locate the segments of the real axis that are root loci.
The root locus on the real axis always lies in a section of the real axis
to the left of an odd number of poles and zeros.
This fact is ascertained by examining the angle criterion.
EXAMPLE 2: Second-order system
A feedback control system possesses the characteristic equation
Step 1: The characteristic equation can be written as
P(s) is rewritten in terms of poles and zeros as
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To determine the locus of roots for the gain 𝟎𝟎 ≤ 𝑲𝑲 < ∞, we locate the
poles and zeros on the real axis as shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5 (a) The zero and poles of a second-order system, (b) the root locus
segments, and (c) the magnitude of each vector at 𝑠𝑠1 .
Step 2: The angle criterion is satisfied on the real axis between the
points 0 and −2, because the angle from pole 𝑝𝑝1 at the origin is 180°,
and the angle from the zero and pole 𝑝𝑝2 at s = −4 is zero degrees.
The locus begins at the pole and ends at the zeros, and therefore the
locus of roots appears as shown in Fig. 5(b), where the direction of the
locus as K is increasing (K) is shown by an arrow.
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To evaluate the gain K at a specific root location on the locus, we use the
magnitude criterion.
For example, the gain K at the root 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑠𝑠1 = −1 is
This magnitude can also be evaluated graphically, as shown in Fig. 5(c).
For the gain of K = 3/2, one other root exists, located on the locus to the left
of the pole at −4. The location of the second root is found graphically to be
located at s = −6, as shown in Fig. 5(c).
Because the loci begin at the poles and end at the zeros, the number of
separate loci is equal to the number of poles since the number of poles is
greater than or equal to the number of zeros.
Therefore, the number of separate loci is equal to two because there are two
poles and one zero.
Note that the root loci must be symmetrical with respect to the horizontal
real axis because the complex roots must appear as pairs of complex
conjugate roots. ■
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Step 3: The loci proceed to the zeros at infinity along asymptotes centered at
𝜎𝜎𝐴𝐴 and with angles 𝜙𝜙𝐴𝐴 .
When the number of finite zeros of P(s), M, is less than the number of
poles n by the number N = n− M, then N sections of loci must end at zeros
at infinity.
These sections of loci proceed to the zeros at infinity along asymptotes as
K approaches infinity.
These linear asymptotes are centered at a point on the real axis given by
(22)
The angle of the asymptotes with respect to the real axis is
(23)
where k is an integer index.
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EXAMPLE 3 Fourth-order system
A unity negative feedback control system has a characteristic equation as follows:
We wish to sketch the root locus in order to
determine the effect of the gain K.
Solution
The poles and zeros are located in the s-
plane, as shown in Fig. 6(a).
The root loci on the real axis must be located
to the left of an odd number of poles and
zeros; they are shown as heavy lines in Fig.
6(a).
Using Eq. (22), the intersection of the
asymptotes is
Fig. 6 Poles and
zeros
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Using Eq. (23), the angles of the asymptotes are
where there are three asymptotes, since n− M = 3.
Also, we note that the root loci must begin at the poles; therefore, two
loci must leave the double pole at s = −4.
Then with the asymptotes sketched in Fig. 6(b), we may sketch the form
of the root locus as shown in Fig. 6(b).
The actual shape of the locus in the area near 𝜎𝜎𝐴𝐴 would be graphically
evaluated, if necessary.
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Fig 6(b) Root loci
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Step 4: Determine where the locus crosses the imaginary axis (if it does so),
using the Routh–Hurwitz criterion.
The actual point at which the root locus crosses the imaginary axis is
readily evaluated by using the criterion.
Step 5: Determine the breakaway point on the real axis (if any).
The root locus in Example 3 left the real axis at a breakaway point.
The locus breakaway from the real axis occurs where the net change in
angle caused by a small displacement is zero.
The locus leaves the real axis where there is a multiplicity of roots
(typically, two).
In general, due to the phase criterion, the tangents to the loci at the
breakaway point are equally spaced over 360°.
The breakaway point on the real axis can be evaluated graphically or
analytically.
The most straightforward method of evaluating the breakaway point
involves the rearranging of the characteristic equation to isolate the
multiplying factor K.
Then the characteristic equation is written as
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Graphically, you plot K vs s and the breakaway point occurs where
K is a maximum.
Analytically, you evaluate the following expression in order to find
the breakaway point.
This will result in an equation of only one degree less than the total
number of poles and zeros n + M −1.
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EXAMPLE 4 Third-order system
A feedback control system is shown in Fig.
7. The characteristic equation is
Fig. 7
The number of poles n minus the number of zeros M is equal to 2, and so we
have two asymptotes at ±90° with a center at 𝜎𝜎𝐴𝐴 .
A breakaway point occurs between s = −2 and s = −3.
To evaluate the breakaway point, we rewrite the characteristic equation so
that K is separated
(24)
25
Then, evaluating p(s) at various values of s between s = −2 and s = −3, we
obtain the results of Table 1, as shown in Figure 8(b).
Fig 8 26
Alternatively, we differentiate Eq. (25) and set it equal to zero to obtain
(26)
Now to locate the maximum of p(s), we locate the roots of Eq. (26) to obtain
s = −2.46, − 0.77 ± 0.79 j.
The only value of s on the real axis in the interval s = −2 to s = −3 is s = −2.46;
It is evident from this one example that the numerical evaluation of p(s) near
the expected breakaway point provides an effective method of evaluating
the breakaway point. ■
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Step 6: Determine the angle of departure of the locus from a pole and the
angle of arrival of the locus at a zero, using the phase angle criterion.
The angle of locus departure from a pole is the difference between the net
angle due to all other poles and zeros and the criterion angle of ±180° (2k +
1), and similarly for the locus angle of arrival at a zero.
The angle of departure (or arrival) is particularly of interest for complex poles
(and zeros) because the information is helpful in completing the root locus.
Consider the third-order loop transfer function.
The pole locations and the vector angles at
one complex pole 𝑝𝑝1 are shown in Fig. 9.
The angles at a test point 𝑠𝑠1 , an infinitesimal
distance from −𝑝𝑝1 , must meet the angle
criterion.
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Therefore, since 𝜃𝜃2 = 90°, we have
or the angle of departure at pole 𝑝𝑝1 is
The departure at pole −𝑝𝑝2 is
the negative of that at −𝑝𝑝1 ,
because −𝑝𝑝1 and −𝑝𝑝2 are
complex conjugates.
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Step 7: The final step in the root locus sketching procedure is to complete the
sketch.
In some situation, we may want to determine a root location 𝑠𝑠𝑥𝑥 and the
value of the parameter 𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥 at that root location.
Determine the root locations that satisfy the phase criterion at the root 𝑠𝑠𝑥𝑥 x
= 1, 2,…, n, using the phase criterion.
The phase criterion
To determine the parameter value 𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥 at a specific root 𝑠𝑠𝑥𝑥 , we use the magnitude
requirement
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