PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJECT ON INDUCTION
Submitted By:
Chayan Jain
Guided By:
Brij Sunder Suman Sir
School Name:
S. V. G. M. S.
Academic Year:
2025-2026
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my physics teacher, Brij Sunder
Suman Sir, for his invaluable guidance, constant encouragement, and support
throughout the duration of this project. His insightful suggestions and expertise
were instrumental in the successful completion of this work. I am also thankful to
my parents and friends for their moral support and to the school library for
providing the necessary resources.
INDEX
Introduction to Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction
Lenz's Law
Self Induction
Definition and Phenomenon
Inductance (L)
Factors Affecting Self Inductance
Mathematical Expression for Solenoid
Applications
Mutual Induction
Definition and Phenomenon
Mutual Inductance (M)
Factors Affecting Mutual Inductance
Mathematical Expression for Two Coaxial Solenoids
Applications
Experimental Demonstration
Objective
Apparatus Required
Theory
Procedure
Observations
Results and Analysis
Precautions and Sources of Error
Conclusion
Bibliography
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Electromagnetic induction is a fundamental phenomenon in physics that describes
how a changing magnetic field in a region of space can induce an electromotive
force (EMF) in a conductor or circuit within that region. This principle is the basis for
many modern technologies, including electric generators, transformers, and
induction cooktops.
The discovery of electromagnetic induction is credited to Michael Faraday in 1831.
His experiments revealed that a voltage (and thus, a current if there is a closed
circuit) is produced across an electrical conductor whenever it is exposed to a
changing magnetic field.
FARADAY'S LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Faraday's Law quantifies the induced EMF. It states that the magnitude of the
induced EMF in any closed circuit is directly proportional to the rate of change of
the magnetic flux through the circuit.
Mathematically, it is expressed as:
ε = - dΦ_B / dt
Where:
ε is the induced electromotive force (EMF) in volts.
dΦ_B / dt is the rate of change of magnetic flux (in webers per second).
Φ_B is the magnetic flux, which is the measure of the total magnetic field passing
through a given area.
The negative sign indicates the direction of the induced EMF, as described by Lenz's
Law.
LENZ'S LAW
Lenz's Law, formulated by Heinrich Lenz in 1834, describes the direction of the
induced current. It states that the direction of the induced current in a conductor or
circuit due to a change in magnetic flux is always such that it opposes the very
change which produces it.
In essence, nature resists changes in magnetic flux. If the magnetic flux through a
loop is increasing, the induced current will create a magnetic field in the opposite
direction to oppose this increase. If the flux is decreasing, the induced current will
create a magnetic field in the same direction to try and maintain the flux.
SELF INDUCTION
Definition and Phenomenon
Self induction is the phenomenon where a changing current in a coil itself induces
an EMF in the same coil. This occurs because a changing current produces a
changing magnetic field, which in turn changes the magnetic flux through the coil.
According to Faraday's Law, this changing flux induces an EMF that opposes the
change in current. The property of a coil to produce such an induced EMF is called
inductance.
[Image: Diagram showing a coil with a changing current and induced EMF
opposing it]
Inductance (L)
The inductance of a coil, denoted by 'L', is a measure of its ability to store magnetic
energy and to oppose changes in electric current. It is defined as the ratio of the
magnetic flux linkage to the current:
L = NΦ_B / I
Where:
L is the inductance in henries (H).
N is the number of turns in the coil.
Φ_B is the magnetic flux through each turn.
I is the current flowing through the coil.
Also, the induced EMF due to self-induction is given by:
ε = - L (dI/dt)
The unit of inductance is the Henry (H). 1 Henry is the inductance of a coil in which
an EMF of 1 volt is induced when the current changes at the rate of 1 ampere per
second.
Factors Affecting Self Inductance
The self inductance of a coil primarily depends on:
Number of turns (N): More turns mean greater inductance (L ∝ N²).
Area of the coil (A): A larger cross-sectional area leads to more magnetic flux,
hence greater inductance.
Length of the coil (l): For a solenoid, a shorter coil (for a given number of turns
and area) has higher inductance.
Core material: The presence of a ferromagnetic core significantly increases
inductance compared to an air core, due to its high permeability.
Mathematical Expression for Solenoid
For a long solenoid of length 'l', number of turns 'N', and cross-sectional area 'A',
carrying a current 'I', the magnetic field inside is approximately uniform and given
by B = μ_0 n I, where n = N/l is the number of turns per unit length and μ_0 is
the permeability of free space.
The magnetic flux through one turn is Φ_B = B × A = (μ_0 N I / l) × A.
The total flux linkage is NΦ_B = N (μ_0 N I A / l) = (μ_0 N² I A) / l.
By definition, L = NΦ_B / I, so:
L = μ_0 N² A / l.
If a core material with relative permeability μ_r is used, μ_0 is replaced by μ = μ_r
μ_0.
Applications of Self Induction
Self induction is utilized in various devices:
Chokes: Used in AC circuits to limit current.
Transformers: Although transformers primarily rely on mutual induction, the coils
themselves possess self-inductance.
Radio Circuits: Inductors are used for tuning and filtering.
Induction Motors: Rely on the principles of electromagnetic induction, including
self-induction effects.
MUTUAL INDUCTION
Definition and Phenomenon
Mutual induction is the phenomenon whereby a changing current in one coil
induces an EMF in a neighboring coil. This happens because the changing magnetic
field produced by the current in the first coil extends outwards and passes through
the second coil, causing a change in magnetic flux through the second coil.
The EMF induced in the second coil is proportional to the rate of change of current
in the first coil.
[Image: Diagram showing two coils placed near each other, with current changing
in coil 1 and inducing EMF in coil 2]
Mutual Inductance (M)
Mutual inductance, denoted by 'M', is a measure of the electromagnetic coupling
between two circuits or coils. It is defined as the ratio of the magnetic flux linkage
in one coil due to the current in the other coil, to that current:
M = N_2 Φ_{21} / I_1 or M = N_1 Φ_{12} / I_2
Where:
M is the mutual inductance in henries (H).
N_1, N_2 are the number of turns in coil 1 and coil 2, respectively.
Φ_{21} is the magnetic flux through each turn of coil 2 due to current I_1 in coil 1.
Φ_{12} is the magnetic flux through each turn of coil 1 due to current I_2 in coil 2.
The EMF induced in coil 2 due to a change in current in coil 1 is:
ε_2 = - M (dI_1/dt)
Similarly, the EMF induced in coil 1 due to a change in current in coil 2 is:
ε_1 = - M (dI_2/dt)
The mutual inductance M is the same regardless of which coil is considered the
primary and which is the secondary. Its unit is also the Henry (H).
Factors Affecting Mutual Inductance
The mutual inductance between two coils depends on:
Number of turns in both coils.
Geometry and relative orientation of the coils (size, shape, distance between
them).
Permeability of the medium (especially the core material) enclosed by the coils.
Degree of magnetic coupling between the coils.
Mathematical Expression for Two Coaxial Solenoids
Consider two long coaxial solenoids. Let solenoid 1 have N_1 turns and length l,
and solenoid 2 have N_2 turns and length l. Let their cross-sectional area be A.
If a current I_1 flows through solenoid 1, the magnetic field inside it is B_1 = μ_0
(N_1/l) I_1 (assuming air core).
The magnetic flux through each turn of solenoid 2 due to I_1 is Φ_{21} = B_1 ×
A = μ_0 (N_1/l) I_1 A.
The total flux linkage in solenoid 2 is N_2 Φ_{21} = N_2 [μ_0 (N_1/l) I_1 A]
= μ_0 (N_1 N_2 A / l) I_1.
By definition, M = N_2 Φ_{21} / I_1, so:
M = μ_0 (N_1 N_2 A) / l.
If the solenoids share a common core of permeability μ, then M = μ (N_1 N_2
A) / l.
Applications of Mutual Induction
Mutual induction is critical for:
Transformers: Step up or step down AC voltages.
Induction Furnaces: Melting metals using induced currents.
Wireless Charging: Transferring power inductively.
RFID Tags: Communication through inductive coupling.
Electric Generators: Although they produce voltage via changing flux, the
interaction between rotating coils and magnetic fields involves mutual inductive
effects.
EXPERIMENTAL DEMONSTRATION
Objective
To demonstrate the principle of electromagnetic induction and observe the induced
current.
Apparatus Required
A long solenoid
A soft iron rod
A galvanometer
A strong bar magnet
Connecting wires
A battery and a key
Another coil (secondary coil) to fit over the solenoid
[Image: Diagram of the experimental setup with solenoid, galvanometer, magnet,
and connecting wires]
Theory
When a magnet is moved into or out of a solenoid, the magnetic flux through the
solenoid changes. This change in flux induces an EMF across the solenoid, which
drives a current if the circuit is closed. The galvanometer detects this induced
current. Similarly, if the current in a primary coil is changed, it produces a changing
magnetic field which induces an EMF in a secondary coil placed nearby.
Procedure
Connect the galvanometer to the ends of the first coil (primary coil) using
connecting wires. Ensure the galvanometer is sensitive.
Demonstration of Magnet & Coil:
Take the bar magnet and move it rapidly into the solenoid. Observe the deflection
in the galvanometer. Note the direction of deflection.
Hold the magnet stationary inside the solenoid. Observe that there is no deflection.
Pull the magnet out of the solenoid rapidly. Observe the deflection again. Note that
the direction of deflection is opposite to that observed when inserting the magnet.
Repeat the process with varying speeds of motion. Observe how the deflection
changes.
Demonstration of Changing Current (Self/Mutual Induction):
Set up the primary coil (wound on the soft iron core) connected to a battery and
key. Set up the secondary coil placed very close to the primary coil and connect its
ends to a sensitive galvanometer.
Close the key for the primary circuit. Observe the galvanometer deflection. It
deflects momentarily.
Open the key. Observe the galvanometer deflection again. It deflects in the
opposite direction momentarily.
If using an AC source instead of a battery and key, a continuous deflection will be
observed, proportional to the AC frequency and amplitude.
Observations
When the magnet is moved relative to the solenoid, the galvanometer shows a
deflection, indicating an induced current.
When the magnet is stationary, no deflection is observed.
The faster the relative motion between the magnet and the solenoid, the larger the
deflection of the galvanometer, implying a larger induced EMF and current.
When the current in the primary coil is changed (switched on or off), the
galvanometer connected to the secondary coil shows a momentary deflection.
The direction of induced current opposes the change causing it (Lenz's Law).
RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
The experiment successfully demonstrates the principle of electromagnetic
induction. The observations confirm Faraday's Law, as a change in magnetic flux
(caused by moving magnet or changing current) induces an EMF. The direction of
the induced current is found to be opposite to the change in flux, validating Lenz's
Law.
The magnitude of the induced EMF is directly related to the rate of change of
magnetic flux. This was evident from the larger galvanometer deflections observed
when the magnet was moved faster or when the current change was more abrupt
(switching on/off).
The use of a soft iron core in the primary coil significantly enhances the magnetic
field produced by the current, thereby increasing the magnetic flux linkage with the
secondary coil and resulting in a larger induced EMF and current. This highlights
the role of the core material's permeability in induction.
PRECAUTIONS AND SOURCES OF ERROR
Precautions:
Use a sensitive galvanometer to detect small induced currents.
Ensure all connections are tight and free from loose contacts.
When demonstrating with current change, use a steady DC source for switching or
an AC source of appropriate voltage.
Handle magnets with care to avoid demagnetization.
For accurate measurements of inductance, use proper measuring instruments and
avoid external magnetic fields.
Ensure the secondary coil is placed very close to or concentric with the primary coil
for maximum coupling.
Sources of Error:
Friction in the galvanometer movement can affect the accuracy of deflection
readings.
Resistance in the connecting wires can cause a slight reduction in the induced
current.
The magnetic field of the Earth may cause minor interference.
Imperfect coupling between coils in mutual induction experiments.
Non-uniformity of the magnetic field, especially near the ends of the solenoid.
Changes in temperature can affect the resistance of coils.
CONCLUSION
This project successfully explored the fundamental principles of electromagnetic
induction, self-induction, and mutual induction. We have understood how changing
magnetic fields can induce EMFs and currents, the factors influencing inductance,
and the practical applications of these phenomena in various technologies. The
experimental demonstration provided a clear visual understanding of these
concepts.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
NCERT Physics Textbook for Class XII
“Concepts of Physics” by H.C. Verma, Volume II
Physics Lab Manuals
Online resources such as Wikipedia, Khan Academy, and educational physics
websites.
