MODULE 1

1. Introduction to Computers

A computer is an electronic device that takes input, processes it according to instructions,

stores it, and produces output in a useful format. Computers are widely used in all fields
including science, business, education, medicine, and entertainment.

Characteristics of Computers

• Speed: Modern computers perform millions or even billions of operations per

second.

• Accuracy: Errors rarely occur unless caused by faulty data or instructions.

• Automation: Once a program is loaded, the computer can execute tasks

automatically without further human intervention.

• Storage: Computers can store vast amounts of information in a small space, and data
can be retrieved instantly.

• Versatility: A single computer can perform multiple different tasks (word processing,
browsing, gaming, data analysis).

• Connectivity: Computers can communicate with each other over networks like the
Internet.

Basic Functions of a Computer

1. Input: Data is entered into the system through input devices (e.g., keyboard, mouse,
scanner).

2. Processing: CPU interprets and processes the input data into meaningful information.

3. Storage: Information is stored temporarily in primary memory or permanently in

secondary storage.

4. Output: Results are presented to the user through devices like monitors, printers, or
speakers.

5. Control: The Control Unit of the CPU directs the flow of data and operations.

A Computer System

A computer system has the following units:

• Input Unit → Devices like keyboard and mouse send data to the CPU.

• Central Processing Unit (CPU):

• Control Unit (CU): Directs operations.

 • Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs calculations and logic.

• Registers: Small, fast storage inside CPU.

• Memory Unit: Stores data and instructions.

• Output Unit: Devices like monitor, printer show results.

2. Types of Computers

Computers can be classified in several ways, mainly by size and processing power.

Supercomputers

• Extremely fast and powerful machines capable of trillions of calculations per second.

• Used for highly complex tasks like weather forecasting, space research, nuclear
simulations, and AI research.

• Examples: Param Siddhi (India), Summit (USA), Fugaku (Japan).

Mainframe Computers

• Very large, powerful systems designed to handle hundreds or thousands of users

simultaneously.

• Used in banks, airlines, government organizations, and large businesses.

• Known for reliability, huge storage, and high processing speed.

• Example: IBM Z series.

Minicomputers

• Mid-sized computers, smaller than mainframes but larger than personal computers.

• Used in laboratories, research centers, and small businesses.

• Example: PDP series.

Microcomputers (Personal Computers)

• The most common type of computers used by individuals.

• Includes desktops, laptops, tablets, and smartphones.

• Suitable for everyday tasks like word processing, browsing, education, and
entertainment.
Workstations

• High-performance single-user computers.

• Designed for technical/scientific applications such as CAD (Computer-Aided Design),

3D modeling, and software development.

Embedded Systems

• Special-purpose computers built into other devices.

• Perform dedicated functions within machines like washing machines, cars,

smartphones, ATMs, and smart TVs.

3. Hardware

Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer system.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

• Known as the “brain” of the computer.

• Components:

• Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs mathematical calculations and logical

comparisons.

• Control Unit (CU): Directs data flow and coordinates hardware operations.

• Registers: Small, high-speed storage units inside the CPU for temporary data.

Input Devices

Input devices are hardware components used to enter data and instructions into the
computer. Without input devices, users cannot interact effectively with the system.

Types of Input Devices

1. Keyboard

The most common input device to input text, numbers etc to the computer in
human readable format.

• Contains keys for alphabets, numbers, symbols, and special functions.

• Types:

▪ QWERTY Keyboard (standard).

 ▪ Ergonomic Keyboard (comfortable design).

▪ Virtual/On-screen Keyboards (touch devices).

2. Pointing Devices

• Allow the user to control the movement of the pointer/cursor on the screen.

• Examples:

▪ Mouse: Standard pointing device with buttons and scroll wheel.

▪ Touchpad/Trackpad: Found in laptops, responds to finger movements.

▪ Joystick: Used in gaming and controlling machines.

▪ Stylus Pen: Used for touchscreens and drawing tablets.

3. Scanning Devices

• Convert physical images or documents into digital form.

• Examples:

▪ Flatbed Scanner: Commonly used for scanning images and

documents.

▪ Barcode Reader: Scans barcodes (used in retail).

▪ QR Code Scanner: Scans quick response codes.

▪ Fingerprint Scanner: Biometric input.

4. Voice and Audio Input Devices

• Microphone: Records sound and convert it into electrical signal.

• Voice Recognition Systems: Convert speech to text (used in Siri, Alexa,

Google Assistant).

5. Image and Video Input Devices

• Webcam: Captures pictures and videos for communication.

• Digital Camera: Captures high-quality images and transfers them to a

computer.

6. Specialized Input Devices

• Touchscreen: Combines input and output (finger or stylus).

• Graphics Tablet: Used by designers and artists for drawing.

• Sensors: Input from physical environment (temperature, motion).

 • Biometric Devices: Fingerprint, retina scanner, face recognition.

Output Devices

Output devices are hardware components that present processed information from the
computer to the user in a readable or usable form.

Types of Output Devices

1. Visual Output Devices

o Monitor (VDU – Visual Display Unit): Displays text, images, videos.

▪ Types of monitors:

▪ CRT (Cathode Ray Tube): Old, bulky monitors.

▪ LCD (Liquid Crystal Display): Slim, flat, energy-efficient.

▪ LED (Light Emitting Diode): Improved brightness and clarity.

▪ OLED (Organic LED): High-quality color and contrast, used in

modern devices.

o Projector: Projects images/videos onto a large screen (used in classrooms,

cinemas, meetings).

o Smart Boards: Interactive boards used in education and business

presentations.

2. Printed Output Devices (Hard Copy)

o Printers: Produce permanent physical copies of documents.

▪ Impact Printers: Use mechanical impact to print (e.g., Dot Matrix

Printer).

▪ Non-Impact Printers: Use laser or inkjet technology.

▪ Inkjet Printer: High-quality color printing.

▪ Laser Printer: High-speed, high-volume printing.

o Plotters: Special printers used for printing large-scale designs, blueprints, and
maps.

3. Audio Output Devices

o Speakers: Output sound from the computer.

o Headphones/Earphones: Personal audio output.

o Sound Cards: Interface between computer and audio devices.

 4. Other Output Devices

o Haptic Devices: Provide touch feedback (used in VR systems, gaming

controllers).

o Braille Displays/Embossers: Output devices designed for visually impaired

users (converts text into Braille).

Key Differences Between Input and Output Devices

Feature Input Devices Output Devices

Present results/data from

Purpose Send data/instructions to computer
computer

Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Monitor, Printer, Speakers,

Examples
Microphone Projector

Data Flow
User → Computer Computer → User
Direction

Storage Devices

Storage devices are used to save data either temporarily or permanently.

• Primary Memory (Fast, accessible by CPU):

o RAM (Random Access Memory): Volatile memory, data lost when power is
off. Stores running programs. Faster memory.

o ROM (Read Only Memory): Non-volatile memory, stores permanent

instructions like firmware, media, etc. slower than RAM

o Registers: Very fast, small memory in CPU.

• Secondary Memory (Permanent storage):

o Hard Disk Drives (HDD), Solid State Drives (SSD), Optical Discs (CD/DVD), USB
Drives.

o Slower than RAM but can store large amounts of data permanently.
Register Memory

• Definition: Smallest and fastest memory in a computer, located directly inside the
CPU.

• Purpose: Holds data, instructions, addresses, or intermediate results that the CPU is
actively using.

• Size: Very small (measured in bytes or a few KB at most).

• Speed: Faster than cache and main memory (RAM).

• Access: Directly accessed by the CPU’s control unit (no intermediate lookup).

• Examples of registers:

o Accumulator (ACC): Stores results of arithmetic/logic operations.

o Program Counter (PC): Holds the address of the next instruction.

o Instruction Register (IR): Holds the current instruction.

o General Purpose Registers (AX, BX, R0, R1, etc.): Temporary data storage.

Cache Memory

• Definition: A small, high-speed memory located between the CPU and main memory
(RAM).

• Purpose: Stores copies of frequently used instructions and data from RAM to reduce
access time.

• Size: Larger than registers but smaller than RAM (typically a few MB).

• Speed: Slower than registers but much faster than RAM.

• Levels:

o L1 Cache: Smallest, fastest, located inside CPU core.

o L2 Cache: Larger, a bit slower, may be inside CPU or on a separate chip.

o L3 Cache: Even larger, shared across CPU cores.

• Memory Hierarchy:
Registers → Cache → RAM → Hard Disk → Optical/Cloud Storage
(Speed decreases, storage capacity increases).
 4. Software

Software is a collection of programs and instructions that enable a computer to perform

specific tasks.

Types of Software

1. System Software:
Controls and manages computer hardware. Example: Operating System.

2. Application Software:
Designed for end-users to perform tasks such as word processing, browsing, or
gaming.
Examples: MS Word, Photoshop.

3. Utility Software:
A type of system software that helps in maintaining, analyzing, and optimizing
computer performance.
Examples: Antivirus, Disk Cleanup, Backup tools, Compression software.

4. Middleware:
Acts as a bridge between different applications or systems to enable communication
and data management.

Computer Languages

Computer languages are used to write programs for computers. They are divided into:
 • Low-Level Languages: Machine language (binary) and Assembly language, close to
hardware and fast but difficult for humans.

• High-Level Languages: User-friendly, portable, and widely used for programming (C,
Java, Python, etc.).

Language Translators

Since computers can only understand machine language (binary 0s and 1s), translators are
needed to convert human-readable programs into machine code.

Types of Language Translators

1. Assembler:

o Converts Assembly Language into Machine Code.

o Each assembly instruction is directly mapped to machine code.

o Faster than compilers and interpreters because it deals with low-level code.

2. Compiler:

o Translates the entire high-level program into machine code at once.

o Produces an independent executable file.

o Fast execution after compilation but may take longer to detect and fix errors.

o Example languages: C, C++.

3. Interpreter:

o Translates and executes a program line by line.

o Easier for debugging because errors are shown immediately.

o Slower execution compared to compiled programs since translation happens

during runtime.

o Example languages: Python, JavaScript.

Operating System (OS)

The Operating System is the most important system software. It manages computer
hardware and software resources and provides services for computer programs. It acts as a
link between the user, applications, and hardware.
Functions of an OS

1. Process Management:

o Handles creation, scheduling, and termination of processes.

o Ensures multitasking and smooth execution of applications.

2. Memory Management:

o Allocates and deallocates memory to programs.

o Uses techniques like paging and segmentation.

3. File Management:

o Provides a way to store, retrieve, and organize files.

o Manages permissions and access control.

4. Device Management:

o Controls and coordinates input/output devices (keyboard, printer, etc.).

o Uses device drivers for communication with hardware.

5. Security & Access Control:

o Protects data and resources from unauthorized access.

o Provides authentication (passwords, biometrics) and encryption.

6. User Interface:

o Provides a Command-Line Interface (CLI) or Graphical User Interface (GUI).

7. Networking:

o Supports communication between computers.

o Manages network connections and data sharing.

8. Error Detection & Handling:

o Monitors system errors and takes corrective action.

Types of Operating Systems

• Batch OS: Executes jobs in batches without user interaction.

• Time-Sharing OS: Multiple users share system resources simultaneously.

• Distributed OS: Controls multiple interconnected computers.

 • Embedded OS: Designed for small devices (IoT, appliances).

• Mobile OS: Specifically for smartphones/tablets (Android, iOS).

Examples: Windows, Linux, macOS, Android, UNIX.

5. Computer Network

A computer network is a system in which two or more computers and devices are
connected to share resources (files, printers), exchange data, and communicate efficiently.
Networks can be classified based on their geographical coverage and architecture.

1. LAN (Local Area Network)

• Definition: A network that covers a small geographic area, such as a single building,
office, school, or home.

• Distance: Usually limited to a few kilometers.

• Ownership: Privately owned and managed.

• Data Transfer Speed: High (up to several Gbps).

• Cost: Relatively low setup and maintenance cost.

• Examples:

o Networking in a computer lab.

o Office building with shared printers and files.

Advantages:

• High speed and reliability.

• Easy to set up and expand in small areas.

• Resource sharing reduces cost.

Disadvantages:

• Limited to small areas.

• Security risks if not properly managed.

2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

• Definition: A network that covers a city or a large campus, bigger than a LAN but
smaller than a WAN.

• Distance: Covers up to 50 km.

• Ownership: Can be public or private.

• Data Transfer Speed: Moderate to high, depending on technology.

• Examples:

o Cable TV networks.

o City-wide Wi-Fi or university campus networks.

Advantages:

• Covers larger areas than LAN.

• Supports high-speed connectivity for organizations spread across a city.

Disadvantages:

• More expensive than LAN.

• Requires complex infrastructure and maintenance.

3. WAN (Wide Area Network)

• Definition: A network that covers a very large geographic area, such as a country or
the entire globe.

• Distance: Unlimited; spans continents.

• Ownership: Usually not owned by one organization; involves multiple ISPs (Internet
Service Providers).

• Data Transfer Speed: Slower compared to LAN and MAN due to distance and
congestion.

• Examples:
 o The Internet (largest WAN).

o Banking networks connecting ATMs nationwide.

Advantages:

• Global coverage.

• Enables long-distance communication.

• Connects LANs and MANs together.

Disadvantages:

• Expensive setup and maintenance.

• Slower data transfer compared to LAN.

• High vulnerability to cyber-attacks.

4. Client-Server Model

• Definition: A client-server system is a network architecture where multiple client

devices (computers, tablets, mobiles) request and use services from a central server.
The server provides resources such as files, databases, applications, or web pages,
while clients act as users of these services.

Components:

• Client: Device (PC, laptop, mobile) that requests services such as files, applications,
or web pages.

• Server: A powerful computer that provides services, stores data, manages security,
and controls access.

Examples:

• A web browser (client) requesting pages from a web server.

• Email services like Gmail (client requests → server responds).

Advantages:

• Centralized control of data and resources.

• Easier to manage security and backups.

• Scalable – multiple clients can connect to one server.

Disadvantages:

• Server failure can bring down the entire network.

• Requires powerful hardware and trained administrators.

• Higher cost compared to peer-to-peer networks.