ADV COMPUTER NETWORK

PAID UNIT 1 NOTES

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 ADVANCED COMPUTER NETWORK

UNIT I - INTERNET ARCHITECTURE AND NETWORK LAYER

2 MARKS QUESTIONS
1. Define - i) Structure of Internet ii) Intranet
i) Structure of Internet: The Internet is a global network of interconnected networks that
follows a hierarchical structure. It consists of three main tiers: Tier-1 ISPs (backbone
providers), Tier-2 ISPs (regional providers), and Tier-3 ISPs (local access providers). The
structure includes core networks, distribution networks, and access networks connected
through routers and switches.
ii) Intranet: An intranet is a private network that uses Internet protocols and technologies
within an organization. It is accessible only to authorized users within the organization and
provides secure communication, file sharing, and resource access internally.
2. State any two advantages of IPv6 Protocol over IPv4 Protocol
1. Larger Address Space: IPv6 provides 128-bit addresses compared to IPv4's 32-bit
addresses, offering virtually unlimited IP addresses (2^128 vs 2^32).
2. Built-in Security: IPv6 has IPSec (Internet Protocol Security) built-in as a mandatory
feature, providing authentication and encryption at the network layer.
3. Enlist any four extension headers of IPv6 and IPv4
IPv6 Extension Headers:
1. Hop-by-Hop Options Header
2. Routing Header
3. Fragment Header
4. Authentication Header
IPv4 Headers (Options):
1. Source Route
2. Record Route
3. Timestamp
4. Security
4. State the need of domain name system
The Domain Name System (DNS) is needed because:
• It translates human-readable domain names (like www.google.com) into IP addresses
that computers can understand
• It eliminates the need to remember complex IP addresses
• It provides a hierarchical naming structure for Internet resources

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 5. Define - i) Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) ii) Reverse Address Resolution
Protocol (RARP)
i) Address Resolution Protocol (ARP): ARP is a protocol used to find the hardware (MAC)
address of a device when only its IP address is known. It maps logical IP addresses to
physical MAC addresses in a local network.
ii) Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP): RARP is the opposite of ARP. It finds
the IP address of a device when only its MAC address is known. It's primarily used by
diskless workstations to obtain their IP addresses during boot-up.
6. State the concept of fragmentation in IPv4 and IPv6
IPv4 Fragmentation: In IPv4, fragmentation can occur at any router along the path if the
packet size exceeds the Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU). The router breaks the packet
into smaller fragments, and reassembly occurs at the destination.
IPv6 Fragmentation: In IPv6, only the source host can fragment packets. Routers do not
fragment packets. If a packet is too large, the router sends an ICMPv6 "Packet Too Big"
message back to the source, which then reduces the packet size.

4 MARKS QUESTIONS
1. Identify role of Internet Service Provider (ISP) and Internet Corporation for
Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)
Internet Service Provider (ISP):
• Provides Internet connectivity to end users, businesses, and organizations
• Offers various services like dial-up, broadband, fiber optic connections
• Maintains network infrastructure including routers, switches, and transmission lines
• Provides email services, web hosting, and domain registration
• Acts as gateway between local networks and the global Internet

• Internet Service Provider (ISP)

Role:
An ISP is a company or organization that provides individuals and businesses access to the
Internet.
Main Functions:
• Internet Access: Provides dial-up, broadband (DSL, cable, fiber), or wireless internet
connections.
• IP Address Allocation: Assigns IP addresses to users temporarily or permanently.
• Web Hosting Services: Offers hosting for websites and email servers.
• Customer Support: Helps users troubleshoot network or connectivity issues.
• Security Services: Provides firewall, antivirus, or VPN services to users.

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 • Examples: Jio, Airtel, BSNL, ACT, Comcast, AT&T.

• Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)

Role:

ICANN is a global non-profit organization that manages and coordinates the domain name
system (DNS) and IP address allocation, ensuring a stable, secure, and unified global
Internet.
• Coordinates the Internet's unique identifier systems globally
• Manages the allocation of IP address spaces and autonomous system numbers
• Oversees the domain name system (DNS) root zone management
• Accredits domain name registrars and maintains domain name policies
• Ensures stable and secure operation of Internet's unique identifier systems

Main Functions:
• Domain Name Management: Oversees top-level domains (e.g., .com, .org, .net, .in).
• IP Address Allocation: Works with regional registries to distribute IP address blocks.
• Accrediting Domain Registrars: Authorizes companies that sell domain names (like
GoDaddy, Namecheap).
• Root Server Maintenance: Manages the root zone of the DNS to ensure smooth
internet functioning.
• Policy Development: Develops policies for the use and assignment of names and
numbers online.

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 2. Compare IPv4 and IPv6 (6 points)
Aspect IPv4 IPv6

Address Length 32-bit addresses 128-bit addresses

Address Space ~4.3 billion addresses ~340 undecillion addresses

Header Size Variable length (20-60 bytes) Fixed length (40 bytes)

Security Optional IPSec Mandatory IPSec

Configuration Manual or DHCP Auto-configuration support

Fragmentation At source and routers Only at source

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 3. Explain IPv4 and IPv6 addressing format with its classes
i) IPv4 Addressing Format:
• 32-bit address written in dotted decimal notation (e.g., 192.168.1.1)
• Divided into network and host portions
• Classes:
o Class A: 1.0.0.0 to 126.255.255.255 (8-bit network, 24-bit host)
o Class B: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255 (16-bit network, 16-bit host)
o Class C: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255 (24-bit network, 8-bit host)
o Class D: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 (Multicast)
o Class E: 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255 (Experimental)
ii) IPv6 Addressing Format:
• 128-bit address written in hexadecimal notation separated by colons
• Example: 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334
• Types:
o Unicast: Single interface address
o Multicast: Multiple interfaces address
o Anycast: Nearest interface from a group

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 4. Explain Following concepts in detailed –
i) Subnet ii) subnet addressing iii) address masking iv) supernetting.
i) Subnet (Subnetting) –
A subnet (short for sub-network) is a logical division of a larger IP network. It helps divide a
single network into smaller, manageable segments or sub-networks.
Why Subnetting?
• Efficient IP Allocation: Prevents wasting IPs.
• Improved Security: Different departments can be isolated.
• Better Performance: Reduces broadcast traffic.
• Easier Management: Allows organization-specific control.

Example:
Consider a company with a Class C IP: 192.168.1.0/24 (256 addresses). It has 3 departments:
• Sales – 20 devices
• HR – 10 devices
• IT – 50 devices
Instead of using all 256 IPs in one network, subnetting can divide them into 3 smaller subnets
matching each department’s needs.
192.168.1.0/26 - IT Dept (64 IPs)
192.168.1.64/27 - Sales (32 IPs)
192.168.1.96/28 - HR (16 IPs)
ii) Subnet Addressing
Subnet addressing is the technique of dividing a network into smaller sub-networks (subnets)
by borrowing bits from the host portion of the IP address. This creates a three-tier structure:
network, subnet, and host.
By borrowing bits, more subnetworks are created, each with its own network address,
broadcast address, and range of valid host addresses. This structure enhances the
manageability and security of networks.
Example:
Given 192.168.1.0/24, if we borrow 2 bits, we get /26 subnetting, resulting in 4 subnets with
64 IP addresses each. This method enables efficient IP utilization based on departmental or
organizational needs.

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 iii) Address Masking
Address masking is a technique that uses a subnet mask to distinguish the network portion
from the host portion in an IP address. The subnet mask is a 32-bit number consisting of a
series of 1s (for the network) followed by 0s (for the host).
How it works:
When a subnet mask is applied to an IP address using a bitwise AND operation, it reveals the
network address.
Example:
IP Address: 192.168.1.130
Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
Resulting Network Address: 192.168.1.0
This method is used by routers and devices to identify the network to which an IP belongs
and helps in proper routing of data
iii) Address Masking
Address masking is a technique that uses a subnet mask to distinguish the network portion
from the host portion in an IP address. The subnet mask is a 32-bit number consisting of a
series of 1s (for the network) followed by 0s (for the host).
How it works:
When a subnet mask is applied to an IP address using a bitwise AND operation, it reveals the
network address.
Example:
IP Address: 192.168.1.130
Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
Resulting Network Address: 192.168.1.0
This method is used by routers and devices to identify the network to which an IP belongs
and helps in proper routing of data
iv) Supernetting (CIDR)
Supernetting is the process of combining multiple smaller networks into a larger one. It is
implemented using CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing), which allows flexible IP address
allocation and more efficient routing.
Instead of dividing networks (as in subnetting), supernetting merges multiple networks to
reduce the number of entries in routing tables, thereby improving routing performance.
Example:
Networks like 192.168.0.0/24, 192.168.1.0/24, 192.168.2.0/24, and 192.168.3.0/24 can be
combined into a single block: 192.168.0.0/22
Supernetting is especially useful in backbone and ISP networks to minimize routing
complexity and conserve IP addresses.

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 5. Configure Subnets in network
What is Subnetting?
Subnetting means dividing a big network into smaller parts called subnets.
It helps to manage the network better, improve performance, and increase security.
For example:
Imagine a school has 100 computers. Instead of putting them all in one big network, we
divide them into smaller subnets like:
Subnet 1: Admin Staff
Subnet 2: Teachers
Subnet 3: Students
Each group is in its own subnet, so they work independently but still connect to the internet.
Steps to Configure Subnets in a Network
To configure subnets, follow these steps:
1. Identify the IP Address and Subnet Mask
Let’s say your network IP address is: 192.168.1.0/24
This means:
IP class: Class C
Total IPs: 256 (0 to 255)
But we don’t want one big network. We want to divide it.
2. Decide How Many Subnets You Need
Let’s say we want 4 subnets.
Now we must borrow bits from the host portion to create more networks.
Original subnet mask: /24 = 255.255.255.0
Borrow 2 bits (because 2² = 4 subnets)
New subnet mask: /26 = 255.255.255.192
Now we have:
4 subnets
Each subnet has 64 IPs (62 usable for hosts)
3. Calculate Each Subnet Range
Subnet No. Network Address First IP Last IP Broadcast Address
Subnet 1 192.168.1.0/26 .1 .62 .63

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 Subnet 2 192.168.1.64/26 .65 .126 .127
Subnet 3 192.168.1.128/26 .129 .190 .191
Subnet 4 192.168.1.192/26 .193 .254 .255
You can now assign each subnet to different departments or sections.
4. Assign IPs to Devices
In each subnet, you can now assign IP addresses to computers, printers, routers, etc.
For example:
Subnet 1 (Admin): IPs from 192.168.1.1 to 192.168.1.62
Subnet 2 (Teachers): IPs from 192.168.1.65 to 192.168.1.126
And so on.
Make sure:
No two devices have the same IP
Use the correct subnet mask when configuring each device
5. Configure Router (If Needed)
If the subnets need to talk to each other, a router or Layer 3 switch must be used.
The router needs an IP in each subnet to allow communication between them.

6 MARKS QUESTIONS
1. Draw a neat labelled sketch of IPv4 header format and explain all the fields

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 The IPv4 header uses a 32-bit word structure with variable length (20-60 bytes). It's designed
around the concept of best-effort delivery with optional fragmentation support. Key theoretical
aspects:
• Addressing model: 32-bit addresses providing ~4.3 billion unique addresses
• Fragmentation paradigm: Any router can fragment packets if needed
• Error detection: Header-level checksums for integrity
• Service differentiation: Basic quality of service through Type of Service field
• Hop-based delivery: Time to Live prevents infinite loops
IPv4 Header Fields Explanation:
Version (4 bits): Specifies IP version (4 for IPv4)
Header Length (4 bits): Length of IP header in 32-bit words
Type of Service (8 bits): Specifies quality of service parameters
Total Length (16 bits): Total length of IP datagram in bytes
Identification (16 bits): Unique identifier for fragmented packets
Flags (3 bits): Control fragmentation (Don't Fragment, More Fragments)
Fragment Offset (13 bits): Position of fragment in original datagram
Time to Live (8 bits): Maximum hops before packet is discarded
Protocol (8 bits): Next level protocol (TCP=6, UDP=17)
Header Checksum (16 bits): Error detection for header
Source Address (32 bits): IP address of sender
Destination Address (32 bits): IP address of receiver
Options (Variable): Optional fields for special processing

2. Draw a neat labelled sketch of IPv6 header format and explain all the fields

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 IPv6 header uses a fixed 40-byte structure based on lessons learned from IPv4.
Theoretical improvements:
• Simplified processing: Fixed-length header reduces router overhead
• Extended addressing: 128-bit addresses providing virtually unlimited address space
• End-to-end fragmentation: Only source nodes fragment, improving efficiency
• Enhanced flow control: Flow labels enable better traffic engineering
• Extensible design: Extension headers allow protocol evolution
• Stateless autoconfiguration: Built-in address assignment mechanisms
IPv6 Header Fields Explanation:
Version (4 bits): IP version number (6 for IPv6)
Traffic Class (8 bits): Similar to IPv4
Flow Label (20 bits): Identifies packets belonging to same flow
Payload Length (16 bits): Length of payload following header
Next Header (8 bits): Type of next header (extension or protocol)
Hop Limit (8 bits): Similar to IPv4 TTL, decremented at each hop
Source Address (128 bits): IPv6 address of sender
Destination Address (128 bits): IPv6 address of receiver

3. Calculate subnet mask, first/last address, and number of hosts (given IP block)
When we are given an IP block like 192.168.10.0/26, it tells us:
• Network address: 192.168.10.0
• CIDR notation: /26 (this means 26 bits are used for the network)
Now, let’s learn how to calculate everything step-by-step.
1. Subnet Mask

The CIDR /26 means:

• First 26 bits are network, remaining 6 bits are host (since total = 32 bits)
So, subnet mask will be:
• Binary: 11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000
• Decimal: 255.255.255.192
Subnet Mask = 255.255.255.192

2. Number of Hosts

To calculate the number of valid host addresses, use the formula:

Number of hosts = 2ⁿ – 2
Where n = number of host bits
Here, n = 6, so:
Number of hosts = 2⁶ – 2 = 64 – 2 = 62

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 We subtract 2 because:
• One IP is for network address
• One IP is for broadcast address
Number of Hosts = 62

3. First IP Address
• The first usable address is always 1 more than the network address.
Network address = 192.168.10.0
First usable = 192.168.10.1
First IP Address = 192.168.10.1

4. Last IP Address
• The last usable IP is 1 less than the broadcast address.
Let’s calculate the broadcast address first.
Block size = 64 (since 2⁶ = 64)
So the next network will start at: 192.168.10.64
Therefore, broadcast address is: 192.168.10.63
Last usable = 192.168.10.62
Last IP Address = 192.168.10.62
Broadcast Address = 192.168.10.63

Item Value
Network Address 192.168.10.0/26
Subnet Mask 255.255.255.192
Total Hosts 64
Usable Hosts 62
First Usable IP 192.168.10.1
Last Usable IP 192.168.10.62
Broadcast Address 192.168.10.63

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 4. Explain concepts of i) Mapping logical to physical addresses in ARP ii) Mapping
physical to logical addresses in RARP
i) Mapping Logical to Physical Address in ARP
What is ARP?
ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. It is used to find the physical (MAC) address of
a device when you only know its logical (IP) address.
Think of it like this:
You know your friend’s name (IP address), but you don’t know where they sit (MAC
address). You shout their name in class (send ARP request), and your friend raises their hand
and tells you their seat number (MAC address).
Why is ARP Needed?
When a computer wants to send data on a local network (like LAN), it needs the MAC
address of the destination computer. But usually, the computer only knows the IP address.
That’s where ARP helps.
How ARP Works (Step-by-Step):
A device (like PC1) wants to send data to another IP, say 192.168.1.5.
It checks its ARP table (a small memory that stores known IP-MAC pairs).
If the MAC address is not found, it sends a broadcast ARP Request:
"Who has IP 192.168.1.5? Tell me your MAC!"
The device with that IP (say PC2) replies with its MAC address.
PC1 stores this IP-MAC pair in its ARP table and uses it to send data.
Example:
IP Address MAC Address
192.168.1.5 00:0a:95:9d:68:16
So, ARP maps logical (IP) → physical (MAC) addresses.
ii) Mapping Physical to Logical Address in RARP
What is RARP?
RARP stands for Reverse Address Resolution Protocol. It does the opposite of ARP. It helps a
device to find its IP address when it only knows its MAC address.
Why is RARP Needed?
Some devices (like diskless computers or network printers) may not have an IP address
stored. But they know their own MAC address. When they start up, they use RARP to ask the
network for their IP.

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 How RARP Works (Step-by-Step):
A device sends a RARP Request on the network:
"My MAC address is 00:0a:95:9d:68:16, what is my IP?"
A RARP server (a special system on the network) receives the request.
The server checks its table and sends back the matching IP address.
Now the device knows its own IP and can start communication.
Example:
MAC Address IP Address
00:0a:95:9d:68:16 192.168.1.5
So, RARP maps physical (MAC) → logical (IP) addresses.

5. Explain working and message format of ARP and RARP

1. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
Purpose:
ARP is used to find the MAC address (physical address) of a device when we only know its
IP address (logical address).
Imagine you know your friend’s name (IP), but not their seat number (MAC). So, you ask
loudly in class, "Who is Rahul?" and Rahul replies with his seat number. That’s how ARP
works on a network.
Working of ARP:
Device A wants to send data to Device B but only knows its IP address.
Device A checks its ARP table. If MAC is not found, it sends an ARP Request (broadcast):
"Who has IP address 192.168.1.5? Tell me your MAC address!"
All devices on the network receive the request, but only the device with that IP (Device B)
replies with an ARP Reply:
"I am 192.168.1.5, and my MAC is 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E"
Device A stores this in its ARP table and uses the MAC address to send the data.
Message Format of ARP:
Field Name Description
Hardware Type Type of hardware (e.g., Ethernet = 1)
Protocol Type Type of protocol (IP = 0x0800)
Hardware Address Length Length of MAC (usually 6 bytes)

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 Protocol Address Length Length of IP (usually 4 bytes)
Operation 1 = ARP Request, 2 = ARP Reply
Sender MAC Address MAC of the device sending the message
Sender IP Address IP of the device sending the message
Target MAC Address MAC of the destination (unknown in request)
Target IP Address IP of the device being searched

2. RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)

Purpose:
RARP is used when a device knows its MAC address but doesn’t know its IP address. This is
common for devices like diskless workstations that don't have storage to save an IP.
Imagine you know your seat number (MAC) but not your name (IP), so you ask the teacher,
"What is my name if my seat number is 15?" The teacher looks it up and tells you.
Working of RARP:
A device (like a network printer or diskless computer) boots up and sends a RARP request:
"My MAC address is 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E. What is my IP?"
A special RARP server listens to these requests.
The RARP server checks its table and sends a RARP reply with the IP address.
The device receives its IP and starts communication.
Message Format of RARP:
RARP uses the same message format as ARP, but with a different Operation field:
Operation = 3 (RARP Request)
Operation = 4 (RARP Reply)
The rest of the fields (like hardware type, protocol type, sender/target MAC and IP) remain
the same.

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 ADV COMPUTER NETWORK
PAID UNIT 2 NOTES

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 UNIT II - ROUTING PROTOCOLS
2 MARKS QUESTIONS
1. Define - i) Routing Table ii) Queueing iii) Switching
i) Routing Table: A routing table is a data structure stored in a router that contains
information about network destinations and the best path to reach them. It includes
destination network addresses, next-hop router addresses, interface information, and routing
metrics.
ii) Queueing: Queueing is the process of temporarily storing packets in buffers when they
arrive at a router faster than they can be processed or forwarded. It helps manage traffic flow
and prevents packet loss during congestion.
iii) Switching: Switching is the process of forwarding packets from an input interface to the
appropriate output interface based on the destination address and routing table information.
2. Define Inter-domain and Intra-domain routing.
Intra-domain Routing: Intra-domain routing is a routing protocol used within a single
autonomous system (AS). It manages routing between routers that belong to the same
administrative domain. Examples include RIP and OSPF.
Inter-domain Routing: Inter-domain routing is a routing protocol used between different
autonomous systems. It handles routing between routers that belong to different
administrative domains. BGP is the primary inter-domain routing protocol.
3. Enlist any four features of OSPF.
1. Link State Protocol: OSPF maintains complete topology information of the network
2. Hierarchical Design: Supports area-based network organization for scalability
3. Fast Convergence: Quickly adapts to network changes and failures
4. Authentication Support: Provides security mechanisms to authenticate routing
updates

4 MARKS QUESTIONS
1. Explain the mechanism of routing (Router architecture, routing table, queueing and
switching)
Router Architecture: A router consists of input interfaces, output interfaces, a routing
processor, and switching fabric. The routing processor runs routing protocols and maintains
routing tables.

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 Routing Table: A routing table is a data table stored in a router or network host that lists the
routes to particular network destinations. It directs data packets over an IP network by
providing a set of rules for where to send them. Each router has a unique routing table, which
is stored in its RAM, and it helps determine the best path for data packets based on their
destination. The routing table may also include metrics that indicate the distance to each
destination.
The routing table contains:
• Destination network addresses
• Next-hop router addresses
• Interface information
• Routing metrics
• Administrative distance

Queueing: Routers implement various queueing mechanisms:

• FIFO (First In, First Out)
• Priority queuing
• Weighted Fair Queuing These manage packet flow during congestion periods.

Switching: The switching process involves:

1. Packet arrival at input interface
2. Destination address lookup in routing table
3. Determination of output interface
4. Packet forwarding to appropriate output interface

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 2. Differentiate - Intra and Inter domain routing

Aspect Intra-domain Routing Inter-domain Routing

Scope Within single autonomous Between different autonomous

system systems

Protocols RIP, OSPF, EIGRP BGP

Metric Hop count, bandwidth, delay Path attributes, policies

Convergence Fast convergence Slower convergence

Trust High trust within domain Less trust between domains

Policy Technical optimization Policy-based routing

3. Compare Distance Vector and Link State Routing (any four or more points)

Distance Vector Link State

Shares routing information with neighbors Shares link state information with all
only routers

Uses Bellman-Ford algorithm Uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Slower convergence Faster convergence

Simple implementation Complex implementation

Lower memory and CPU requirements Higher memory and CPU requirements

Count-to-infinity problem exists No count-to-infinity problem

Example: RIP Example: OSPF

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 4. Explain message structure of ICMP
ICMP Message Format: ICMP messages consist of:
Common Header (8 bytes):
1. Type (8 bits): Specifies the kind of ICMP message.
Examples:
• 0 – Echo Reply (used in ping)
• 8 – Echo Request (used in ping)
• 3 – Destination Unreachable
• 11 – Time Exceeded
2. Code (8 bits): Provides more specific information about the message type.
Example for Type 3 (Destination Unreachable):
• Code 0: Network Unreachable
• Code 1: Host Unreachable
• Code 3: Port Unreachable
3. Checksum (16 bits): Used for error checking of the ICMP message header and data.
4. Rest of Header / Data (32 bits or more)
This part varies depending on the type and code of the message.
For example:
• Echo Request/Reply: Contains Identifier + Sequence Number + Payload data
• Destination Unreachable: Contains part of the original IP packet that caused the error
Data Section: Contains additional information specific to the message type, often including
the IP header and first 8 bytes of the original datagram that caused the error.

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 6 MARKS QUESTIONS
1. Explain concepts of ICMP (Types of messages, Error reporting messages, Header
format)
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): ICMP is a network layer protocol used for
error reporting and network diagnostics in IP networks.
Types of ICMP Messages:
A) Error Reporting Messages:
1. Destination Unreachable: Sent when a destination cannot be reached
2. Time Exceeded: Sent when TTL expires or fragment reassembly time exceeded
3. Parameter Problem: Sent when there are problems with IP header parameters
4. Source Quench: Used for flow control (deprecated)
5. Redirect: Informs about better routing paths

B) Query Messages:
1. Echo Request/Reply: Used by ping utility
2. Timestamp Request/Reply: For time synchronization
3. Information Request/Reply: For network information
4. Address Mask Request/Reply: For subnet mask information

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 Header Format: The ICMP header contains:
• Type (8 bits): Message type identifier
• Code (8 bits): Additional message information
• Checksum (16 bits): Error detection
• Message-specific data (32 bits): Varies by message type

2. Explain Intra domain routing with their types, protocols and diagrams
Intra-domain Routing: Intra-domain routing protocols operate within a single autonomous
system to determine the best paths between routers.
Intra-domain routing refers to the process of finding the best path for data packets within a
single autonomous system (AS) or network.
It is used within an organization or ISP's network (not between different networks).
Types of Intra-domain Routing:
A) Distance Vector Routing: Protocol: RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
Characteristics:
• Uses hop count as metric (maximum 15 hops, 16 = infinity)
• Updates sent every 30 seconds
• Uses Bellman-Ford algorithm
• Simple implementation but slow convergence
RIP Message Format:
• Command (8 bits): Request (1) or Response (2)
• Version (8 bits): RIP version
• Family (16 bits): Protocol family (2 for TCP/IP)
• IP Address (32 bits): Destination network address
• Distance (32 bits): Hop count to destination

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 B) Link State Routing:
Protocol: OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
Characteristics:
• Maintains complete network topology
• Uses Dijkstra's algorithm
• Fast convergence
• Supports hierarchical design with areas
• Authentication support
OSPF Features:
1. Areas: Network divided into logical areas
2. LSA (Link State Advertisements): Share link information
3. SPF Tree: Shortest path calculation
4. Designated Router: Reduces LSA flooding in broadcast networks

3. Explain Inter domain routing with their types, protocols and diagrams

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 What is Inter-Domain Routing?
Inter-domain routing is the process of routing data between different Autonomous Systems
(AS) across the Internet.
Each AS is a large network or group of networks controlled by one organization (like an ISP,
university, or large company).
Inter-domain routing ensures data travels efficiently from one AS to another.
Type: Path Vector Routing
Inter-domain routing uses a Path Vector algorithm.
It is similar to Distance Vector but instead of hop count, it tracks the path (AS numbers) to
avoid routing loops.
Protocol Used: BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)
BGP is the standard inter-domain routing protocol on the Internet.
Types of BGP:
eBGP External BGP – Used between different ASes
iBGP Internal BGP – Used within the same AS
Key Characteristics of BGP
Policy-based routing: Allows control over routing decisions based on policies.
Path Vector Algorithm: Maintains the entire AS_PATH for each route.
Uses TCP: Runs on TCP port 179 for reliable communication.
Scalable and Flexible: Handles thousands of routes and supports various filters and
preferences.
How BGP Works (BGP Operations)
Session Establishment:
BGP routers (called BGP speakers) establish a TCP connection with peers.
Route Advertisement:
They advertise routes and networks that can be reached via their AS.
Path Selection:
The best path is selected using BGP attributes like LOCAL_PREF, AS_PATH, etc.
Policy Implementation:
Organizations apply custom routing policies (e.g., prefer cheaper links, avoid certain paths).

BGP Attributes (Used for Path Selection)

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 Attribute Description
AS_PATH List of ASes that the route has passed through.
NEXT_HOP IP address of the next router to reach destination.
LOCAL_PREF Preference value within an AS (higher is better).
MED Multi-exit discriminator; used for comparing multiple exit points.

BGP Message Types

Type Purpose
OPEN Start a BGP session
UPDATE Advertise new routes or withdraw old ones
NOTIFICATION Send error messages
KEEPALIVE Keep session active (sent periodically)

Types of Autonomous Systems

Type Description
Stub AS Connected to only one AS (no transit traffic).
Multihomed AS Connected to multiple ASes but does not allow transit traffic.
Transit AS Allows traffic to pass through it to other ASes.

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 ADV COMPUTER NETWORK
PAID UNIT 3 NOTES

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 UNIT III - TRANSPORT LAYER PROTOCOLS
2 MARKS QUESTIONS
1. Enlist any two services provided by UDP.
• Process-to-Process Communication
• Connectionless Data Transfer
2. State the use of six flags in TCP header.
• URG (Urgent) :
Indicates that the data contains urgent information, and the Urgent Pointer field is
valid.
• ACK (Acknowledgment) :
Indicates that the Acknowledgment field is valid. It is used to acknowledge receipt of
data.
• PSH (Push) :
Instructs the receiver to pass the data to the application immediately without
buffering.
• RST (Reset) :
Resets the connection due to errors or if an invalid segment is received. Used to abort
the connection.
• SYN (Synchronize) :
Used to initiate a TCP connection and synchronize sequence numbers.
• FIN (Finish) :
Indicates that the sender has finished sending data and wants to terminate the
connection.

4 MARKS QUESTIONS
1. Compare Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
Difference Multiplexer Demultiplexer
Definition A multiplexer is a combinational A demultiplexer is a
digital circuit that takes multiple combinational digital circuit that
data inputs and provides only single takes single input and provides
output. multiple outputs.
Abbreviated The abbreviation used to represent The abbreviation used to represent
name the multiplexer is MUX. the demultiplexer is DEMUX.

Input and Multiplexer has 2n input lines and 1 Demultiplexer has 1 input line
output lines output line. Where, n is the number and 2n output lines. Where, n is
of select lines. the number of select lines.
Also known Multiplexer is also known as a Demultiplexer is also known as
as "data selector". "data distributor".
Operating The operating principle of the The operating principle of a
principle multiplexer is "many to one". demultiplexer is "ne to many".
Acts as Multiplexer acts as a digital multi- Demultiplexer acts as a digital
position switch. circuit.

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 Conversion A multiplexer performs parallel to A demultiplexer performs serial to
technique serial conversion. parallel conversion.
Function of In case of multiplexer, the function In demultiplexer, the function of
control of control signal is to select a control signal is to deliver the
signal specific input that has to be single input signal over the
transmitted at the output. multiple output lines.
Examples Examples of some common Some common demultiplexers are
multiplexers are • 1:2 Demultiplexer
• 8:1 Multiplexer • 1:4 Demultiplexer
• 16:1 Multiplexer • 1:8 Demultiplexer
• 32:1 Multiplexer • 1:16 Demultiplexer
Practical In practice, the multiplexer In practice, the demultiplexer
importance increases the efficiency of the takes the output of a multiplexer
communication system by enabling and convert in its original form at
the data transmission using a single the receiver end.
line.
Usage in A multiplexer is used at the The demultiplexer is used at the
time-division transmitter end in the time-division receiver end in the time-division
multiplexing multiplexing (TDM). multiplexing.
Applications The multiplexers are commonly The demultiplexers are used in
used in communication systems, communication systems,
telephone networks, computer reconstruction of parallel data,
memories, etc. ALU, etc.

2. Explain Functioning of User Datagram Protocol (UDP) with header format,

features, applications and example.
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is one of the core protocols of the Internet Protocol (IP)
suite.
• It is a communication protocol used across the internet for time-sensitive transmissions
such as video playback or DNS lookups .
• Unlike Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), UDP is connectionless and does not
guarantee delivery, order, or error checking, making it a lightweight and efficient option
for certain types of data transmission.
• The UDP helps to establish low-latency and loss-tolerating connections over the network.
The UDP enables process-to-process communication.

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 • UDP header is an 8-byte fixed and simple header, while for TCP it may vary from 20
bytes to 60 bytes.
• The first 8 Bytes contain all necessary header information and the remaining part
consists of data. UDP port number fields are each 16 bits long, therefore the range for
port numbers is defined from 0 to 65535; port number 0 is reserved.
• Port numbers help to distinguish different user requests or processes.
• Source Port: Source Port is a 2 Byte long field used to identify the port number of the
source.
• Destination Port: It is a 2 Byte long field, used to identify the port of the destined
packet.
• Length: Length is the length of UDP including the header and the data. It is a 16-bits
field.
• Checksum: Checksum is 2 Bytes long field. It is the 16-bit one's complement of the
one's complement sum of the UDP header, the pseudo-header of information from the
IP header, and the data, padded with zero octets at the end (if necessary) to make a
multiple of two octets.

Applications of UDP

• Used for simple request-response communication when the size of data is less and
hence there is lesser concern about flow and error control.
• It is a suitable protocol for multicasting as UDP supports packet switching.
• UDP is used for some routing update protocols like RIP (Routing Information
Protocol).
• Normally used for real-time applications which can not tolerate uneven delays between
sections of a received message.
• VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) services, such as Skype and WhatsApp, use UDP
for real-time voice communication. The delay in voice communication can be
noticeable if packets are delayed due to congestion control, so UDP is used to ensure
fast and efficient data transmission.

Key Features:

• Connectionless:
UDP does not establish a connection before sending data, unlike TCP. This reduces
overhead and latency, making it faster.
• Unreliable:
UDP does not guarantee delivery, order, or integrity of data. Packets can be lost,
arrive out of order, or be duplicated.

Example Scenarios :
• Online Gaming:
UDP is preferred for online games due to its low latency, which is crucial for
responsive gameplay, even if some data packets are lost
• Video Streaming:
UDP is often used for streaming services where some packet loss is acceptable to
maintain smooth playback.

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 3. Explain Functioning of TCP with its services, features and segment
TCP Segment Format

Where,
• Source port address: It is used to define the address of the application program in a
source computer. It is a 16-bit field.
• Destination port address: It is used to define the address of the application program
in a destination computer. It is a 16-bit field.
• Sequence number: A stream of data is divided into two or more TCP segments. The
32-bit sequence number field represents the position of the data in an original data
stream.
• Acknowledgement number: A 32-field acknowledgement number acknowledge the
data from other communicating devices. If ACK field is set to 1, then it specifies the
sequence number that the receiver is expecting to receive.
• Header Length (HLEN): It specifies the size of the TCP header in 32-bit words. The
minimum size of the header is 5 words, and the maximum size of the header is 15
words. Therefore, the maximum size of the TCP header is 60 bytes, and the minimum
size of the TCP header is 20 bytes.
• Reserved: It is a six-bit field which is reserved for future use.
• Control bits: Each bit of a control field functions individually and independently. A
control bit defines the use of a segment or serves as a validity check for other fields.

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 TCP Srvices & Features :
• Connection Oriented: It means sender and receiver are connected to each other till
the completion of the process. The order of the data is maintained i.e. order remains
same before and after transmission.
• Full Duplex: In TCP data can be transmitted from receiver to the sender or vice -
versa at the same time. It increases efficiency of data flow between sender and
receiver.
• Flow Control: Flow control limits the rate at which a sender transfers data. This is
done to ensure reliable delivery. The receiver continually hints to the sender on how
much data can be received (using a sliding window).
• Error Control: TCP implements an error control mechanism for reliable data
transfer. Error control is byte-oriented. Segments are checked for error detection.
Error Control includes - Corrupted Segment & Lost Segment Management, Out-of-
order segments, Duplicate segments, etc.
• Congestion Control: TCP takes into account the level of congestion in the network.
Congestion level is determined by the amount of data sent by a sender.

4. Explain flow control and error control in TCP.

Flow Control:
Purpose: Prevents a fast sender from overwhelming a slow receiver.
Mechanism: Uses a "sliding window" mechanism where the receiver advertises the amount
of buffer space it has available for incoming data. The sender then limits its transmissions to
this window size.
Example : If a receiver's buffer is full, it will advertise a window size of zero, signaling the
sender to stop sending until the receiver has processed some data and freed up buffer space.
Key Terms:

• Receiver Window: The amount of buffer space available at the receiver for incoming
data.
• Sliding Window: A technique used to control the flow of data by indicating the range of
sequence numbers that are allowed to be in transit.
• Acknowledgement (ACK): A message sent by the receiver to the sender to indicate that
data has been received successfully.
Error Control:
Purpose: Ensures data integrity by detecting and correcting errors introduced during
transmission.
Mechanism: TCP uses checksums to verify the integrity of data segments. If a checksum
error is detected, the receiver discards the segment, and the sender retransmits it. TCP also
uses sequence numbers to ensure proper ordering of packets, and can detect duplicate
packets.

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 Example: If a receiver detects a corrupted packet (e.g., checksum mismatch), it will not
acknowledge it. The sender will eventually time out and retransmit the lost packet.
Key Terms :
• Checksum : A value calculated from the data that can be used to detect errors.
• Sequence Number : A number assigned to each data segment to ensure proper ordering
at the receiver.
• Retransmission : The process of sending a segment again after it has been lost or
corrupted.
• Timeout : A mechanism where the sender waits for an acknowledgement for a certain
period before retransmitting the segment.
• Duplicate ACK : A mechanism where the receiver sends multiple ACKs for the same
packet if it receives out-of-order segments.

5. Describe TCP Congestion control-Open loop, Closed loop

Open -Loop
• Retransmission policies: If a packet is lost, the sender retransmits it.
• Windowing: The sender limits the amount of data it sends at any given time to
prevent overwhelming the network.
• Discarding: Routers may drop packets when overloaded, but a good discarding policy
is crucial.
• Acknowledgement: Mechanisms like selective repeat acknowledge packets to help
the sender track what has been received and what needs retransmission.
• Admission control: Deciding whether to accept a new connection based on network
load.

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 Close-Loop
• Backpressure: A congested node stops receiving data from upstream nodes,
potentially causing them to become congested as well.
• Choke packets: A congested router sends a packet back to the source to signal
congestion.
• Implicit and Explicit signaling: Routers can use various methods, like adjusting
their behavior or sending explicit signals, to indicate congestion.

6. Compare TCP and UDP (any four or more points).

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 6 MARKS QUESTIONS

1. Explain the mechanism of process-to-process delivery [ i) Client/Server paradigm, ii)

Multiplexing and Demultiplexing iii) Connectionless vs. Connection-Oriented Service ]
• Process-to-process delivery, handled by the Transport layer, ensures data is delivered
from a specific process on one host to a specific process on another.
• This is achieved through a combination of the client-server paradigm, multiplexing
and demultiplexing, and either connectionless or connection-oriented service models.
1. Client/Server Paradigm:
• This model involves a client process requesting a service from a server process.
• The client initiates the communication by sending a request to the server's well-
known port.
• The server then responds to the client's request.
• This interaction enables process-to-process communication, where the Transport layer
manages the delivery between the client and server processes.

2. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing:

• Multiplexing: combines data from multiple processes on the sending host into
segments and adds header information (including port numbers) for delivery to the
network layer.
• Demultiplexing: at the receiving host separates the incoming segments based on the
header information (specifically the destination port number) and delivers them to the
correct application process.
• This allows multiple processes on a single host to communicate concurrently without
interference.
• For example, a web server might be handling requests from multiple clients
simultaneously, each request being directed to the appropriate process on the server
using multiplexing and demultiplexing.

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 3. Connectionless vs. Connection-Oriented Service:
• Connectionless (e.g., UDP): Each segment is treated independently. No prior
connection setup is needed, and each packet may take a different route. This is faster
but unreliable as there's no guarantee of delivery, order, or error checking.
• Connection-oriented (e.g., TCP): A connection is established before data transfer
begins and is torn down after data transfer. This provides reliable delivery with
guaranteed order and error checking. It's more robust but slower due to the overhead
of connection management.
• The choice between connectionless and connection-oriented depends on the
application's requirements, with connectionless suitable for applications where speed
is crucial and some data loss is acceptable, and connection-oriented preferred for
applications requiring reliable and ordered data delivery.

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 2. Describe TCP connection using three-way handshake.
• The three-way handshake is a mechanism used by TCP to establish a reliable
connection between a client and a server.
• It involves three steps: the client sends a SYN (synchronize) packet, the server
responds with a SYN-ACK (synchronize-acknowledge) packet, and finally, the client
sends an ACK (acknowledge) packet to confirm the connection.
• This process ensures both devices are ready to communicate and agree on initial
sequence numbers for data transmission.

1. SYN (Client to Server):

• The client initiates the connection by sending a TCP segment with the SYN flag set to
1.
• This packet also includes a randomly generated sequence number (client_isn) which
will be used to track the data sent by the client.
2. SYN-ACK (Server to Client):
• The server, upon receiving the SYN, responds with a TCP segment with both the SYN
and ACK flags set to 1.
• The server also sends its own randomly generated sequence number (server_isn) and
acknowledges the client's sequence number by setting the ACK field to client_isn + 1.
3. ACK (Client to Server):
• The client acknowledges the server's SYN-ACK by sending a TCP segment with the
ACK flag set to 1.

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 • The ACK number is set to server_isn + 1 to acknowledge the server's sequence
number. This confirms that the server is ready to receive data from the client.
3. Explain TLS in detail with working and applications.

• TLS (Transport Layer Security) is a cryptographic protocol that provides secure

communication channels over a computer network.
• It's widely used to encrypt communication between a client and a server, ensuring
confidentiality, data integrity, and authentication.
• TLS achieves this through a process called a handshake, which establishes a secure,
encrypted connection using both symmetric and asymmetric cryptography.

How TLS Works:

• Client and Server "Hello":
The process begins with a "hello" message from both the client and server,
establishing which TLS version and cryptographic algorithms they both support.
• Authentication:
The server sends its digital certificate (issued by a Certificate Authority) to the client,
proving its identity.
• Key Exchange:
The client and server then exchange a pre-master secret using asymmetric encryption
(e.g., RSA). This secret is used to generate session keys, which are used for
symmetric encryption during the actual data transfer.
• Session Key Usage:
Once the session keys are established, all subsequent communication between the
client and server is encrypted using these symmetric keys, providing a secure and
efficient channel.

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 • Finished Message:
The server sends a "finished" message, indicating that its part of the handshake is
complete.

Applications of TLS:
• Web Browsing (HTTPS) : TLS secures communication between web browsers and
web servers, protecting sensitive data like login credentials, payment information, and
personal details.
• Email (SMTPS, IMAPS, POP3S) : TLS encrypts email communication, protecting
messages in transit from eavesdropping and tampering.
• Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) : TLS secures VPN connections, creating a
private tunnel for data transmission over public networks.
• File Transfer (FTPS) : TLS encrypts file transfers, protecting sensitive data during
file sharing.
• Voice over IP (VoIP) : TLS encrypts voice and video communication over IP
networks, providing secure communication for voice calls and video conferencing.

4. Describe Functioning of SCTP with services, packet format, association process and
features.
Services:
• Process-to-Process Communication : SCTP allows multiple applications on
different hosts to communicate with each other, similar to TCP.
• Multihoming : Both the sending and receiving hosts can define multiple IP addresses
for an association, providing redundancy and failover capabilities.
• Multiple Streams : SCTP supports multiple independent streams within a single
association, allowing for parallel data transfer and avoiding head-of-line blocking
(where one delayed packet can hold up others).
• Ordered Data Delivery : SCTP ensures that data chunks within each stream are
delivered in sequence, enhancing reliability.
• Fault Tolerance : The multihoming feature enables SCTP to switch to a different
path if one path fails, ensuring continuous communication.
• Message Orientation : SCTP transmits data in discrete chunks, preserving message
boundaries, unlike TCP which treats data as a byte stream.

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 Packet Format:

The Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) has a simpler basic packet structure than
TCP. Each consists of two basic sections:
• The common header, which occupies the first 12 bytes. In the adjacent diagram, this
header is highlighted in blue.
• The data chunks, which form the remaining portion of the packet. In the diagram, the
first chunk is highlighted in green and the last of N chunks (Chunk N) is highlighted in
red. There are several types, including payload data and different control messages.

All SCTP packets require the common header section

• Source port This field identifies the sending port.
• Destination port This field identifies the receiving port that hosts use to route the
packet to the appropriate endpoint/application.
• Verification tag A32-bit random value created during initialization to distinguish stale
packets from a previous connection.
• Checksum SCTP's original design catered for Adler-32; but RFC 3309 changed the
protocol to use the CRC32c algorithm.
Association Process:

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 SCTP association establishment involves a four-way handshake:
1. INIT : The initiating endpoint sends an INIT chunk to the peer, including its source and
destination IP addresses, and a random verification tag.
2. INIT ACK : The responding endpoint sends an INIT ACK chunk, including its own
verification tag and a cookie.
3. COOKIE ECHO : The initiating endpoint sends back the received cookie in a COOKIE
ECHO chunk.
4. COOK IE ACK : The responding endpoint acknowledges the cookie with a COOKIE
ACK chunk, completing the association setup.
Features:
• Reliable and Ordered Delivery: SCTP guarantees reliable and ordered delivery of
data chunks within each stream.
• Message Boundaries Preservation: SCTP preserves the boundaries of application-
level messages, preventing issues like head-of-line blocking.
• Multihoming Support: Allows multiple IP addresses for each endpoint, enhancing
fault tolerance.
• Stream Multiplexing: Enables multiple independent streams of data within a single
connection.
• Security Features: SCTP provides resistance against certain denial-of-service
attacks.
• Full-Duplex Connection: Supports simultaneous two-way communication.
• Path Selection: Offers the ability to select a preferred path for data transmission and
monitor its availability.

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 ADV COMPUTER NETWORK
PAID UNIT 4 NOTES

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 UNIT IV - APPLICATION LAYER PROTOCOLS
2 MARKS
1. Define Domain Name System (DNS) and DNS name space.

• Domain Name System : The Domain Name System (DNS) is a fundamental part of
the internet that translates human-readable domain names (like google.com) into
machine-readable IP addresses (like 172.217.160.142) that computers use to locate
each other.
• Domain Name System Namespace : The DNS namespace is a hierarchical, tree-like
structure that organizes all domain names on the internet
2. State the transmission modes of FTP.
• Connection Modes:
Active Mode:
In active mode, the FTP client opens a port and sends the PORT command to the
server, informing it of the client's listening port. The server then connects back to the
client's specified port to initiate data transfer.
Passive Mode:
In passive mode, the client initiates both the control and data connections. After the
client connects to the server's command port (typically 21), the server opens a random
data port and sends the client information about this port.

• Data Transfer Modes:

Stream Mode:
The default mode where data is sent as a continuous stream of bytes. TCP handles the
segmentation of data into packets.
Block Mode:
Data is sent in blocks, each preceded by a 3-byte header. The first byte indicates the
block type (e.g., data or end-of-data), and the other two bytes specify the length of the
block.
Compressed Mode:
Data is compressed before transmission to reduce file size. This is especially useful
for large files.
3. Explain HTTP response message format.

• An HTTP response message, sent from a server to a client, typically consists of a

status line, headers, and an optional message body
1. Status Line:

1) HTTP-Version: Indicates the HTTP version (e.g., HTTP/1.1).

2) Status-Code: A three-digit numerical code indicating the outcome of the
request (e.g., 200 OK, 404 Not Found).
3) Reason-Phrase: A human-readable phrase explaining the status code (e.g.,
"OK", "Not Found").

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 2. Headers :

• These are key-value pairs that provide metadata about the response. Common headers
include:
1) Content-Type: Specifies the media type of the response body (e.g.,
"text/html", "application/json").
2) Content-Length: Indicates the size of the response body in bytes.
3) Date: Shows the date and time the response was created.
4) Server: Indicates the server software used.
5) Cache-Control: Specifies caching directives.
6) Set-Cookie: Used to set cookies.
3. Message Body (Optional):
This contains the actual data being returned in the response. The body can be of any
format, including text, HTML, JSON, images, or other media types.

4. Define World Wide Web (WWW).

The World Wide Web (WWW or Web) is a system of interconnected documents and
resources, primarily accessed via the internet, that allows users to view and interact
with information through hyperlinks.

5. Define - i) Key rings ii) PGP certificates

• Key rings: In the context of cryptography, particularly Pretty Good Privacy (PGP),
key rings are files that store cryptographic keys. They are used to manage and
organize public and private keys, which are essential for encryption and digital
signatures. There are two types of key rings: private-key rings, which store the user's
own private and public keys, and public-key rings, which store the public keys of
other users.

• PGP certificates: PGP certificates are digital documents that verify the identity of a
user and their associated public key. They are typically issued by a Certificate
Authority (CA) and contain information such as the user's public key, name, and other
identifying information, along with a digital signature from the CA to ensure
authenticity.

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 4 MARKS QUESTIONS

1. Explain DNS Concepts - i) Components of DNS Architecture ii) Domain Types.

i) Components of DNS Architecture

• DNS Client : Initiates DNS queries to resolve domain names to IP addresses.
• DNS Resolver : Responsible for finding the IP address corresponding to a domain
name.
• Stub Resolver: A simplified resolver found on client devices, forwarding
queries to recursive resolvers.
• Recursive Resolver: Performs the actual work of resolving domain names by
querying other DNS servers, potentially in a hierarchical manner.
• DNS Servers : Handle the resolution of domain names.
• Root Name Servers: At the top of the DNS hierarchy, directing queries to the
appropriate TLD servers.
• Top-Level Domain (TLD) Servers: Manage second-level domains within their
respective TLDs.
• Authoritative Name Servers: Hold the definitive records for specific domains
and subdomains.
• DNS Records : Store information about domain names and their associated IP
addresses, along with other data.

ii) Domain Types

• Generic Domains (gTLDs) : These are top-level domains that indicate the general
purpose or nature of a website, such as .com, .org, .net, and .edu.
• Country Code Domains (ccTLDs) : These top-level domains represent specific
countries or regions, such as .us (United States), .uk (United Kingdom), .in (India),
and .jp (Japan).
• Inverse Domains (in-addr.arpa) : Used for reverse DNS lookups, allowing
resolution of IP addresses back to domain names.
• Subdomains : Domains that are part of a larger domain, extending the hierarchical
structure (e.g., www.history.example.com, where history is a subdomain
of example.com).

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 2. Describe - i) File Transfer Protocol (FTP) ii) Anonymous FTP

i) File Transfer Protocol :

• FTP or File Transfer Protocol is said to be one of the earliest and also the most
common forms of transferring files on the internet.
• Located in the application layer of the OSI model, FTP is a basic system that helps in
transferring files between a client and a server.
• It is what makes the FTP unique that the system provides a reliable and efficient
means of transferring files from one system to another even if they have different file
structures and operating systems.
• Contrary to other protocols such as http that cover hypertexts and web resources in
general, ftp is dedicated to the management and the transfer of text, binary, or image
files.
• FTP is a standard communication protocol. There are various other protocols like
HTTP which are used to transfer files between computers, but they lack clarity and
focus as compared to FTP.
• Moreover, the systems involved in connection are heterogeneous, i.e. they differ in
operating systems, directories, structures, character sets, etc the FTP shields the user
from these differences and transfers data efficiently and reliably.
• FTP can transfer ASCII, EBCDIC, or image files. The ASCII is the default file share
format, in this, each character is encoded by NVT ASCII. In ASCII or EBCDIC the
destination must be ready to accept files in this mode. The image file format is the
default format for transforming binary files.

ii) Anonymous FTP :

• AFTP (Anonymous File Transfer Protocol) is a network protocol used for transmitting
files using TCP-based networks. Anonymous file transfer protocol lets a user move
files anonymously from one computer to another.
• Anonymous FTP operates at layer 7; anonymous FTP permits anonymous external
computer users without any designated password or user ID to access the FTP server
i.e., When a user accesses a file, they don’t need to identify themselves.
• Hence, all the data contained within a website that allows Anonymous FTP should be
considered publicly accessible.
• In general, whenever a user visits an Anonymous file transfer protocol site, it’ll not be
impelled to provide a username or password.
• Though sometimes it may ask to provide username and password and in that case, the
user can supply the word ftp or anonymous for their username and they can supply
whatever they want for the password.
• To fetch any file, the user must know the pathname of the file and to which host it
belongs.

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 3. Explain the steps to transfer files using FTP.
1) Establish an FTP Connection:
• Choose an FTP Client: Select an FTP client software (like FileZilla,
Cyberduck, or use the command line).
• Connect to the Server: Open your FTP client and enter the server address,
username, and password (or use anonymous login if allowed).
• Navigate Directories: Use commands like cd (change directory) and ls (list
directory contents) to navigate to the source and destination folders on both
the server and your local machine.
2. Transfer Files:
• Upload (Put): Use the put command (or mput for multiple files) to send files
from your local machine to the server.
• Download (Get): Use the get command (or mget for multiple files) to retrieve
files from the server to your local machine.
• Ensure Correct Transfer Type: Set the transfer type to binary for non-text
files or ascii for text files, depending on the file type and server
configuration. Most modern clients handle this automatically.
3. Manage Files:
• Delete: Use the delete command to remove files from the server.
• Rename: Use the rename command to change the name of a file or directory.
• Copy: While FTP doesn't have a direct copy command, you can achieve this
by downloading a file and then uploading it to a new location.
4. Close the Connection:
• Terminate: Use the bye or quit command to close the FTP connection.

4. Describe the steps to access remote machine using command line and GUI tool.
Command Line Access (SSH):
1. Open a Terminal : On your local machine, open a terminal application (e.g.,
Command Prompt or PowerShell on Windows, Terminal on macOS/Linux).
2. Connect using SSH : Use the ssh command followed by the username and the
remote machine's IP address or hostname (e.g., ssh [email protected]).
3. Authentication : You will be prompted for the password of the remote user. If you
have SSH keys configured, you might not need a password.
4. Access the CLI : Once authenticated, you will have a command-line interface to
the remote machine, allowing you to execute commands.

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 GUI Access (RDP):
1. Enable Remote Desktop on the Remote Machine: On the remote machine,
enable Remote Desktop (RDP) through system settings.
2. Find the Remote Machine's IP Address: Determine the IP address of the remote
machine.
3. Open Remote Desktop Client: On your local machine, open the Remote Desktop
client (mstsc.exe on Windows).
4. Connect to the Remote Machine: Enter the remote machine's IP address or
hostname into the Remote Desktop client and click "Connect".
5. Authentication: Enter the username and password of the remote machine when
prompted.
6. Access the GUI: You will then see the remote machine's desktop and can interact
with it as if you were sitting in front of it.
7. Using GUI tools over SSH: If you need to use GUI tools on the remote machine,
you can enable X11 forwarding over SSH. This allows you to run GUI
applications on the remote server and display them on your local machine.

5. Describe working of HTTP with Architecture, Types of web documents, HTTP

transaction.

1. Client-Server Architecture:
• HTTP operates on a client-server model. The client (e.g., a web browser) initiates a
request, and the server responds.
• This model allows for efficient resource sharing and management between different
devices.

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 2. Request-Response Cycle:
• Request : A client sends an HTTP request to a server. This request includes:
• Request Method: Specifies the action to be performed (e.g., GET to retrieve
data, POST to send data, PUT to update, DELETE to remove).
• URL: The Uniform Resource Locator, which identifies the resource being
requested.
• Headers: Additional information about the request, such as the client's
browser type, preferred content types, and more.
• Body (optional): Data being sent to the server, such as form data in a POST
request.
• Response : The server processes the request and sends back an HTTP response. This
response includes:
• Status Code: A numerical code indicating the outcome of the request (e.g.,
200 OK, 404 Not Found, 500 Internal Server Error).
• Headers: Information about the response, such as content type, length, and
caching instructions.
• Body (optional): The actual content being returned, like the HTML for a
webpage, an image, or JSON data.
3. Underlying Protocol:
• HTTP typically uses TCP/IP as its underlying protocol for reliable data transmission.
• It is a connectionless protocol, meaning each request-response cycle is treated
independently.
• It is also stateless, meaning the server doesn't keep track of previous requests from the
same client, although cookies can add statefulness to some interactions.
4. Proxy Servers:
• HTTP requests and responses often pass through proxy servers, which act as
intermediaries between clients and servers.
• Proxies can be used for caching (storing frequently accessed resources to speed up
access) or for other purposes like security or filtering.
Types of Web Document
Static Web Documents:
• These are fixed-content files (like .html, .css, .jpg) stored on the server.
• They do not change unless edited manually.
• Delivered to the client exactly as stored.
• Example: Basic HTML pages, images, stylesheets.

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 Dynamic Web Documents:
• Content is generated on-the-fly by the server based on client requests.
• Generated using server-side scripts (e.g., PHP, JSP, ASP.NET).
• Different users may see different content.
• Example: User dashboards, search results.
Active Web Documents:
• These are documents that can update themselves automatically without user action.
• Often use client-side scripts (like JavaScript) and techniques such as AJAX.
• Example: Live chat windows, stock tickers.
Multimedia Documents:
• Include audio, video, and animations.
• Often streamed and may require plugins or media players.
• Example: YouTube videos, music files.

6. Describe PGP with Security Parameters, Services and its algorithms.

• PGP, which stands for Pretty Good Privacy, is a popular encryption program used to
secure communication and data.
• It provides a way to encrypt and decrypt emails, files, and other digital information,
ensuring only the intended recipient can access the content.
Security Parameters:
• Key Management:
PGP relies heavily on public and private key pairs. Public keys are used for encryption, and
private keys for decryption.
• Algorithm Selection:
PGP supports various algorithms for encryption, hashing, and digital signatures.
• Secure Storage:
PGP encrypts private keys with passphrases, and modern implementations may use hardware
security modules for enhanced security.
Services:
• Confidentiality:
PGP encrypts messages using symmetric-key cryptography with a random session key, which
is then encrypted with the recipient's public key for secure transmission.

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 • Authentication:
PGP provides digital signatures using hashing and asymmetric cryptography. The sender
hashes the message, encrypts the hash with their private key, and sends the encrypted hash
(signature) with the message.
• Integrity:
PGP ensures message integrity by hashing the message and comparing it with the decrypted
hash (signature) upon receipt. If they match, the message is unaltered.
Algorithms Used:
• Symmetric Encryption: CAST-128, IDEA, 3DES
• Asymmetric Encryption: RSA, Diffie-Hellman
• Hashing: MD5, SHA-1 (deprecated), SHA-256, SHA-512
• Digital Signatures: RSA, DSA (Digital Signature Algorithm)

7. Explain Remote logging with i) Telnet ii) Remote Desktop.

i) Telnet :

• When the user types something on the local computer, the local operating system
accepts the character.
• The local computer does not interpret the characters, it will send them to the TELNET
client.
• TELNET client transforms these characters to a universal character set called
Network Virtual Terminal (NVT) characters and it will pass them to the local TCP/IP
protocol Stack.

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 • Commands or text which are in the form of NVT, travel through the Internet and it
will arrive at the TCP/IP stack at the remote computer.
• Characters are then delivered to the operating system and later on passed to the
TELNET server.
• Then TELNET server changes those characters to characters that can be
understandable by a remote computer.
• The remote operating system receives characters from a pseudo-terminal driver,
which is a piece of software that pretends that characters are coming from a terminal.
• The operating system then passes the character to the appropriate application
program.

ii) Remote Desktop

• A feature that allows a user to log into another computer remotely and interact with
its graphical user interface (GUI).
• It is commonly used in Windows systems using the Remote Desktop Connection
(RDC) tool.

• The remote computer must have Remote Desktop enabled.

• The user runs the Remote Desktop Client and enters the IP address or hostname of
the remote machine.
• After entering the login credentials, the client connects via RDP (port 3389).
• The user can then view and control the desktop just like sitting in front of it.

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 6 MARKS QUESTIONS

1. Explain the process of resolving hostname using DNS.

• User Request (Browser):

The user enters a URL like www.google.com in the browser.
• Check Local DNS Cache:
The operating system checks if the IP address is already cached locally (from a
previous lookup).
• Check Hosts File (Optional):
The system checks a file called hosts which may manually map hostnames to IPs.
• Query to DNS Resolver (ISP's DNS):
If not found locally, the request is sent to the recursive DNS resolver (usually
provided by your ISP).
• Root DNS Server:
The resolver queries a Root DNS server, which responds with the address of a TLD
(Top-Level Domain) server (e.g., for .com).
• TLD DNS Server:
The resolver queries the TLD server (e.g., .com server), which responds with the
address of the authoritative DNS server for google.com.

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 • Authoritative DNS Server:
This server knows the actual IP address of www.google.com and returns it to the
resolver.
• Resolver to Client:
The resolver sends the IP address back to the user's device.
• Connection Established:
The browser uses this IP to connect to the web server and load the website

2. Explain Message Transfer Agent with there protocols ( SMTP ) with there
components and working.
• A Message Transfer Agent (MTA), also known as a Mail Transfer Agent, is software
that handles the transmission of emails between computers.
• It acts like a postal service for emails, receiving messages from senders and routing
them to the correct recipient's mail server.
SMTP is protocol of MAT
Components of SMTP:
• Mail User Agent (MUA):
This is the email client that users interact with (like Outlook, Thunderbird, or webmail
interfaces). The MUA prepares the email, including the content and recipient information,
and hands it off to the MSA.
• Mail Submission Agent (MSA):
The MSA receives emails from the MUA and performs initial checks before passing them on
to the MTA. It's often part of the same server as the MTA.
• Mail Transfer Agent (MTA):
The MTA is the core component responsible for routing and transferring emails. It receives
messages, determines the destination (recipient's server), and relays the message to the next
MTA in the path or directly to the recipient's server.
• Mail Delivery Agent (MDA):
The MDA is responsible for delivering the email to the recipient's mailbox on the final
server. It often works in conjunction with the MTA.

Working of MTA with SMTP:

1. An MUA prepares an email and sends it to the MSA.
2. The MSA receives the email and forwards it to the MTA.
3. The MTA analyzes the recipient's email address and determines the destination
server.

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 4. If the recipient's server is different from the sender's, the MTA acts as a relay,
forwarding the email to another MTA (possibly via multiple relays).
5. If the recipient's server is the same, the MTA delivers the email to the MDA on that
server.
6. The MDA places the email in the recipient's mailbox.
7. The recipient can then retrieve the email using protocols like POP3 or IMAP.

3. Explain Message Access Agent with there protocols ( POP3, IMAP ).

• A Message Access Agent (MAA) is a component of an email system that is
responsible for retrieving email messages from a mail server to a user's email client.
• Essentially, it handles the "pulling" of emails from the server to your computer or
device. POP3 and IMAP are the two main protocols used by MAAs.
• When you use your email client (like Outlook, Thunderbird, or a webmail interface),
it uses either POP3 or IMAP to communicate with the mail server and retrieve your
messages.

• POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3):

This protocol downloads email messages from the server to a single client device
and typically removes them from the server. This means you can access your emails
offline, but they may not be accessible from other devices.

• IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol):

This protocol allows users to access email messages stored on the server without
necessarily downloading them. IMAP synchronizes email messages across multiple
devices, so changes made on one device are reflected on others

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 4. Explain role of PGP in secure communication.
PGP (Pretty Good Privacy) is a cryptographic software that ensures confidentiality,
integrity, and authenticity in digital communications. It is widely used for secure
email communication and file encryption
1. Confidentiality (Encryption):
o PGP uses hybrid encryption — combining symmetric and asymmetric
encryption.
o The message is encrypted using a symmetric key (e.g., AES), and this
symmetric key is then encrypted using the recipient’s public key.
o Only the recipient can decrypt the symmetric key with their private key and
access the original message.
2. Authentication (Digital Signature):
o The sender signs the message with their private key.
o The receiver uses the sender's public key to verify the signature.
o This confirms the identity of the sender and protects against impersonation.
3. Data Integrity (Hashing):
o PGP generates a hash value (e.g., using SHA-1 or SHA-256) of the message.
o If the message is modified, the hash changes, and the receiver can detect
tampering.

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 Working Steps of PGP:
1. The sender creates the message.
2. A hash of the message is generated and digitally signed with the sender’s private
key.
3. The message is encrypted using a randomly generated symmetric key.
4. The symmetric key is encrypted with the recipient’s public key.
5. The receiver uses their private key to decrypt the symmetric key.
6. The symmetric key is then used to decrypt the message.
7. The signature is verified using the sender’s public key.

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 ADV COMPUTER NETWORK
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 UNIT V - WIRELESS NETWORK TECHNOLOGIES
2 MARKS QUESTIONS

1. Define Wireless Network Communication.

Wireless network communication refers to the transmission of information between
two or more devices using radio waves or other electromagnetic frequencies, without
the need for physical cables or wired connections.

2. Define Multimedia Wireless Networks .

Multimedia Wireless Networks refer to the transmission and processing of multimedia
content (like audio, video, and images) over wireless communication networks.

4 MARKS QUESTIONS
1. Compare the characteristics of 2G,3G, 4G, 5G.
Feature / Generation 2G 3G 4G 5G

Launch Year Early 1990s Early 2000s Around 2010 2019 onwards

Technology Used GSM, CDMA WCDMA, LTE, WiMAX NR (New Radio),

CDMA2000 mmWave, Massive
MIMO
Data Speed ~64 kbps 384 kbps – few 100 Mbps – 1 1–10 Gbps or more
Mbps Gbps
Bandwidth 25–30 kHz 5 MHz 20 MHz – 100 Up to 400 MHz (or
MHz more)
Latency ~300 ms ~100 ms ~30–50 ms 1 ms or less
Main Features Voice, SMS Voice, SMS, basic High-speed Ultra-fast, IoT, AI,
internet, video internet, HD automation
streaming
Internet Support Very limited Moderate (3G Strong (mobile Extremely fast and
(GPRS, Internet) broadband) reliable internet
EDGE)
Network Core Circuit- Circuit + packet- All-IP packet- Cloud-native, full IP-
switched switched switched based
Applications Voice calls, Video calls, Video streaming, Smart cities,
SMS mobile web gaming, VoIP autonomous vehicles,
5G IoT

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 2. Describe SDN with - Architecture, Working, Applications.
SDN architecture typically consists of three layers:

1. Application Layer:
This layer contains network applications and services that utilize the SDN controller
to perform tasks like traffic management, security, and resource allocation.
2. Control Layer:
The core of SDN, this layer consists of the SDN controller, which manages and
controls the network by abstracting the underlying infrastructure.
3. Infrastructure Layer:
This layer comprises the physical network devices (switches, routers, etc.) that
forward data traffic based on instructions from the control layer.
Working:
• SDN decouples the control plane from the data plane, meaning that the devices in the
network no longer need to make their own forwarding decisions.
• Instead, the SDN controller, a software application, centrally manages the network
and instructs the devices on how to forward traffic.
• This is achieved through APIs, such as OpenFlow, that allow the controller to
communicate with the network devices and modify their forwarding behavior.
Applications : SDN has a wide range of applications, including:
• Data Centers:
SDN simplifies network management in data centers, enabling dynamic resource
allocation and efficient traffic management.
• Cloud Computing:
SDN allows cloud providers to offer flexible and scalable network services to their
customers, adapting to changing demands.

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 • Wide Area Networks (WANs):
SDN enables dynamic traffic engineering and optimized resource utilization across
geographically dispersed networks.
• Access Networks:
SDN can improve network performance and security in access networks, such as
those used by enterprises or service providers.
• Network Virtualization:
SDN allows for the creation of virtual networks over a physical infrastructure,
enabling greater flexibility and resource utilization.
• Automation:
SDN facilitates network automation, reducing manual configuration efforts and
enabling faster deployment of new services.

3. Describe NFV with - Architecture, Benefits, Applications.

• The term “Network Functions Virtualization” (NFV) refers to the use of virtual
machines in place of physical network appliances.
• There is a requirement for a hypervisor to operate networking software and
procedures like load balancing and routing by virtual computers.
NFV's architecture :

• Virtual Network Functions (VNFs):

These are software applications that perform specific network tasks, such as routing,
firewalling, or load balancing. VNFs are deployed as virtual machines or containers
on standard servers, replacing the need for dedicated hardware appliances.

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 • NFV Infrastructure (NFVI):
This provides the underlying hardware and software resources to host and manage
VNFs. It includes compute, storage, and networking resources, often leveraging
virtualization technologies like hypervisors.
• Management and Orchestration (MANO):
This framework handles the lifecycle management of VNFs, including their
deployment, configuration, scaling, and termination. MANO ensures that VNFs are
provisioned and managed efficiently and effectively.

Benefits:
• Reduced Costs:
By virtualizing network functions, NFV eliminates the need for costly, specialized
hardware appliances. This leads to lower capital expenditures (CAPEX) and
operating expenses (OPEX).
• Increased Agility and Flexibility:
NFV allows for faster deployment of new network services and functions, as VNFs
can be quickly provisioned and scaled up or down as needed. This agility enables
rapid responses to changing market demands and customer needs.
• Improved Scalability:
NFV enables networks to scale up or down dynamically based on traffic demands,
without the need for physical hardware upgrades.
• Faster Deployment Times:
NFV significantly reduces the time it takes to deploy new network services,
accelerating time-to-market for new offerings.
• Enhanced Network Performance:
NFV can optimize network performance by distributing VNFs across multiple
servers and locations, improving resource utilization and reducing latency.

Applications:
• Telecommunications:
NFV is transforming the telecommunications industry by enabling service providers
to virtualize core network functions, such as routers, firewalls, and load
balancers. This allows them to offer new and innovative services, improve network
efficiency, and reduce costs.
• Cloud Computing:
NFV plays a crucial role in cloud computing by enabling the virtualization of
network functions, such as virtual private networks (VPNs) and firewalls, within
cloud environments. This allows cloud providers to offer more flexible and scalable
networking solutions to their customers.
• Internet of Things (IoT):
NFV can be used to create virtualized network slices for IoT devices, enabling them
to connect securely and efficiently to the internet. This is particularly important for
applications like smart cities, connected vehicles, and industrial automation.
• Enterprise Networking:
NFV can be used to virtualize network functions within enterprise networks,
providing greater flexibility, scalability, and cost savings compared to traditional
hardware-based solutions.

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 4. Compare Edge Computing and Edge Networking with following points Definition,
Components, Challenges, Applications .

Point Edge Computing Edge Networking

Edge computing is the processing

Edge networking refers to the communication
and analysis of data closer to the
infrastructure that connects edge devices,
Definition data source (at the edge) rather
enabling data transfer from the edge to other
than in a centralized cloud/data
parts of the network.
center.

- Edge devices (sensors, IoT

- Routers, switches at the edge
devices)
- Wireless access points (Wi-Fi, 5G)
Components - Edge servers/gateways
- Network protocols (TCP/IP, MQTT)
- Local storage
- Communication links
– Processing units (CPUs, GPUs)

- Limited processing power at

- Network congestion
edge
- Latency issues
Challenges - Security and data privacy
- Maintaining QoS
- Device heterogeneity
- Edge device compatibility and interoperability
- Real-time decision complexity

Smart cities, Autonomous Remote monitoring systems, V2V

Applications
vehicles Communication

6 MARKS QUESTIONS
1. Describe roles of various Multimedia Wireless Networks i) Streaming Audio ii)
Streaming Video iii) Voice Over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
Streaming Audio:
• Continuous Playback:
Wireless networks facilitate the continuous playback of audio streams (e.g., music,
podcasts) by delivering data packets in a timely manner, allowing for uninterrupted
listening experiences.
• Buffering and Adaptation:
Streaming services employ buffering and bandwidth adaptation techniques to handle
potential network fluctuations and ensure smooth playback, even with varying
wireless signal strength.

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 • Reduced Download Time:
Streaming eliminates the need to download entire audio files before playback,
offering immediate access to content.
• Examples:
Online radio stations, music streaming apps, and audiobooks accessed over Wi-Fi.
Streaming Video:
• High Bandwidth Requirements:
Video streaming demands significant bandwidth to transmit large video files, which
wireless networks must be capable of handling.
• Adaptive Bitrate Streaming:
To adapt to changing network conditions, video streaming services often utilize
adaptive bitrate streaming, adjusting the video quality based on available bandwidth.
• Buffering and Synchronization:
Video playback relies on buffering to compensate for packet loss and ensure
synchronization between audio and video streams.
• Examples:
YouTube, Netflix, and other video-on-demand services accessed via Wi-Fi or mobile
data.
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP):
• Digital Voice Transmission:
VoIP converts voice signals into digital data packets, which are then transmitted over
the internet (including wireless networks).
• Real-time Communication:
VoIP enables real-time voice communication, allowing users to make calls over the
internet.
• Protocol Support:
VoIP relies on various protocols like RTP for packet sequencing and timing, and SIP
for call setup and management.
• Wireless VoIP:
Wireless networks enable VoIP communication through Wi-Fi hotspots or mobile data
connections, providing flexibility and mobility for users.
• Examples:
Skype, WhatsApp calls, and business phone systems that use VoIP technology.

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 2. Describe protocols of Multimedia Wireless Networks i) Realtime Transport
Protocol(RTP), ii) Real-Time Streaming Protocol (RTSP)
Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP):
• Purpose:
RTP is a network protocol designed for transmitting real-time multimedia data, such
as audio and video, over packet-switched networks, including wireless networks.
• Functionality:
It provides mechanisms for sequencing, timestamping, and mixing multimedia data
streams. RTP also includes Real-time Transport Control Protocol (RTCP) for
monitoring and feedback about the quality of the stream.
• Transport:
RTP typically uses UDP (User Datagram Protocol) as its transport layer, which is
suitable for real-time applications due to its low latency, though it doesn't guarantee
delivery of packets.
Example: RTP is used in applications like Voice over IP (VoIP), video conferencing, and
internet radio.
Key Features:
• Sequence numbers: Helps in reassembling packets in the correct order at the
receiver.
• Timestamps: Allow for synchronization of audio and video streams at the receiving
end.
• Payload type: Indicates the type of media data being carried (e.g., audio or video
codec).
Real-time Streaming Protocol (RTSP):
• Purpose:
RTSP is an application-level protocol that manages the control plane for streaming
multimedia content.
• Functionality:
It allows clients to control the streaming media server, enabling features like play, pause,
stop, rewind, and fast-forward.
• Transport:
RTSP typically uses TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) for its connection, ensuring
reliable communication between the client and server.
• Relationship with RTP:
RTSP is often used in conjunction with RTP. RTSP sets up the streaming session and
negotiates the parameters (e.g., which ports to use for RTP), while RTP is responsible for
the actual data transmission.

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 • Example:
RTSP is widely used in IP cameras, surveillance systems, and video-on-demand services.
• Key Features:
• Session control: Enables clients to control the media stream remotely.
• Negotiation: Allows clients and servers to agree on the parameters of the
streaming session.
• Command-based: Uses commands like SETUP, PLAY, PAUSE, and
TEARDOWN to manage the stream

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