Problem description

When you're trying to find the maximum and minimum values of a function,
using a graph can often be much easier than relying only on algebraic
methods. Here’s why:

1. Visual Representation: A graph gives you a clear picture of how the

function behaves. You can easily spot the peaks (maximums) and
valleys (minimums) just by looking at it.

2. Identifying Critical Points: It’s straightforward to see where the function

changes direction, which helps you find those important points where
the function might reach its highest or lowest values.

3. Interval Analysis: A graph makes it simple to determine where the

function is increasing or decreasing. This understanding helps you
grasp the overall behavior of the function without getting lost in
calculations.

Overall, graphing provides a more intuitive way to analyze a function. It

simplifies the process of spotting key features and understanding how the
function behaves, making it a practical choice for many people.

Introduction
- Early Contributions: Indian mathematicians like Brahmagupta (7th
century) made significant contributions, including early work on quadratic
equations, which laid foundational ideas for optimization.

- Key Figures : In the 17th century, Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz further advanced the understanding of functions and their behavior
through the development of calculus.

- Historical Roots: The study of maximum and minimum values has deep
historical roots, beginning with ancient mathematicians and continuing with
the development of calculus in the 17th century.

- Introduction of Derivatives: The invention of calculus introduced

derivatives, allowing for the identification of critical points where functions
reach their highest or lowest values.

- Rise of Graphing: In the 19th century, mathematicians recognized the

power of graphing functions to visualize behavior, making it easier to identify
trends and turning points.
- Modern Relevance: Today, graphing is a vital tool in both education and
professional mathematics, helping people quickly find maximum and
minimum values and understand function behavior in a more intuitive way

Procedure(Sec-A)
Topic: Draw the graph of quadratic function. From the
graph find maximum/minimum value of the function. Also
determine the sign of the expression.

Understanding the Quadratic

Function
For a quadratic function in the form:
2
y=a x +bx +c
where a , b , and c are constants:
 If a> 0, the parabola opens upwards and has a minimum value at its vertex.
 If a< 0, the parabola opens downwards and has a maximum value at its vertex.

1. Using the Vertex Formula

The vertex of a parabola is the point at which it reaches its highest or lowest value, depending on
whether it opens upwards or downwards.
Finding the Vertex Coordinates
For the quadratic function y=a x2 +bx +c , the coordinates of the vertex can be found using:
1. The x -coordinate of the vertex:
−b
x=
2a
−b
2. The y -coordinate of the vertex: Substitute x= back into the
2a
original equation y=a x2 +bx +c to find the corresponding y -value:

( ) ( )
2
−b −b
y=a +b +c
2a 2a
 When simplified, this gives:
2
4 ac−b
y=
4a
So, the vertex of the quadratic function y=a x2 +bx +c is:

( )
2
−b 4 ac−b
,
2a 4a

Interpretation of the Vertex

 If a> 0: The y -coordinate of the vertex is the minimum value of the function.
 If a< 0: The y -coordinate of the vertex is the maximum value of the function.
Example Using the Vertex Formula
Let’s apply this to y=2 x 2−8 x +6:
1. Calculate the x -coordinate of the vertex:
−−8
x= =2
2⋅2
2. Substitute x=2 back into the equation to find the y -coordinate:
2
y=2 ( 2 ) −8 (2 )+ 6=8−16+6=−2

Thus, the vertex is at ( 2 ,−2 ), and because a=2>0 , the minimum value of the function is −2.
2. Using Completing the Square
Completing the square is another method to find the vertex, which directly gives the maximum
or minimum value without requiring the vertex formula.
For y=a x2 +bx +c , here’s how you can complete the square:
Step-by-Step Method
1. Rewrite the function in terms of a : Factor out a from the x 2 and x
terms:

2 b
(
y=a x + x + c
a )
2. Complete the square inside the parentheses:
b
o Take half of , square it, and add it inside the parentheses. To balance the
a
equation, subtract the same value outside:

( ( )) ( )
2 2
b 2 b b
y=a x + x + −a +c
a 2a 2a

3. Rewrite as a perfect square:

( )
2 2
b b
y=a x + − +c
2a 4a
4. Simplify the constants to get the vertex form:

( )( )
2 2
b b
y=a x + + c−
2a 4a

Now the vertex form is y=a ( x−h )2 +k , where:

−b
 h= (the x -coordinate of the vertex),
2a
2
 k =c− b (the y -coordinate of the vertex).
4a
Interpretation

( )
2
b
 If a> 0, the term x + is always non-negative, so the smallest value of y occurs when
2a

( )
2
b
x+ =0 , giving y=k , which is the minimum value.
2a

( )
2
b
 If a< 0, y is maximized at y=k , since x + =0 minimizes the negative impact
2a
Example Using Completing the Square
Let’s find the minimum of y=2 x 2−8 x +6 by completing the square:
1. Factor out 2 from the x -terms:

y=2 ( x 2−4 x ) +6
2. Complete the square inside the parentheses:

o Take half of −4, square it to get 4 , and add 4 inside the parentheses:

y=2 ( x 2−4 x +4 )−2 ⋅ 4+6

2
¿ 2 ( x−2 ) −8+ 6
3. Simplify:
2
y=2 ( x−2 ) −2

So, the vertex form is y=2 ( x−2 )2−2, where ( h , k ) =( 2 ,−2 ). Since a=2>0 , the minimum value
of the function is −2.
3. Using the Discriminant to Interpret the
Graph’s Shape
The discriminant Δ=b 2−4 ac gives insight into the roots of the quadratic equation and,
indirectly, helps in understanding if the function has real roots and whether the parabola touches
or intersects the x -axis.
 If Δ >0: The function has two distinct real roots, meaning the parabola intersects the x -
axis at two points. The vertex provides the minimum or maximum value.
 If Δ=0 : The function has one real root (a repeated root), so the vertex lies on the x -axis.
Here, the minimum or maximum value of y is 0 (assuming the vertex is at y=0).
 If Δ <0: The function has no real roots (the parabola does not intersect the x -axis). The
vertex still represents the minimum or maximum, but the function never reaches y=0.
This interpretation is useful in quickly understanding the behavior of the quadratic function's
graph in relation to the x -axis.
These three methods — the vertex formula, completing the square, and understanding the
discriminant — together give a comprehensive way to find the maximum or minimum values of
a quadratic function.

Example: Find the Maximum of y=−2 x 2 +8 x−6

4. Starting Equation:
2
y=−2 x +8 x−6
5. Factor out -2 from the x-terms:

y=−2 ( x 2−4 x )−6

6. Complete the square inside the parentheses:
o Take half of −4 (which is −2), square it to get 4 , and add this inside the
parentheses:

y=−2 ( x 2−4 x +4 ) +2 ⋅4−6

2
y=−2 ( x−2 ) +8−6
7. Simplify:
2
y=−2 ( x−2 ) +2
8. Vertex Form: The vertex form is:
2
y=−2 ( x−2 ) +2
 o Vertex: ( h , k ) =( 2 ,2 )
o Since a=−2<0 , the maximum value of the function is 2.

Table Summarizing the three methods

Method Steps Vertex (x, y) Max/Min Value

( )
Vertex Formula −b −b 4 ac−b
2 y -value at vertex
Use x= for x , then find ,
2a 2a 4a
y.
Rewrite as y=a ( x−h )2 +k
( )
2
Completing the −b b
2
b
Square , c− k =c−
to find h and k . 2a 4a 4a
Discriminant Use Δ=b 2−4 ac to check No direct calculation for Determines if real
Insight root type (two, one, or max/min roots exist
none).

Conclusion
Quadratic equations have the general form y=ax2+bx+cy = ax^2 + bx + c and can show different
behaviors based on the coefficient aa:
 If a>0a > 0:
 o The parabola opens upwards.
o The vertex is the minimum point of the graph.
 If a<0a < 0:
o The parabola opens downwards.
o The vertex is the maximum point of the graph.
Finding Maximum and Minimum Using the Graph
1. Graph the Function:
o Plot the quadratic function to visualize its shape.
2. Locate the Vertex:
o The vertex is the highest (if downward-opening) or lowest (if upward-opening)
point on the graph.
3. Identify Maximum or Minimum:
o For upward-opening parabolas, the vertex gives the minimum value.
o For downward-opening parabolas, the vertex gives the maximum value.
This process helps easily determine the maximum or minimum value of a quadratic function by
analyzing its graph

Further Studies

Real-World Applications:
 Look into how quadratic equations are used in everyday situations, like calculating the
path of a thrown ball or maximizing profits in a business.
Different Forms:
 Learn about the different ways to write a quadratic equation (standard form, vertex form,
factored form) and how to convert between them.
Roots and Their Meaning:
 Explore how to find the roots of quadratic equations and what they mean, including how
the discriminant helps determine if the roots are real or complex.

End of Section A
 Problem Description(Sec B)
In statistics, the median is a measure of central tendency that represents the middle value of a
dataset when it is arranged in order. To find the median using cumulative frequency curves, we
can employ two types of curves: the "less than" cumulative frequency curve and the "more than"
cumulative frequency curve.
In this problem, we will:
1. Collect Data: Gather frequency data for a given dataset.
2. Construct Cumulative Frequency Tables: Create tables for "less than" and "more than"
cumulative frequencies based on the data.
3. Draw Cumulative Frequency Curves: Plot these cumulative frequencies on a graph to
visually represent the distribution of the data.
4. Find the Median: Identify the point of intersection between the two curves, which will
help us determine the median value of the dataset.

Objective
The objective is to demonstrate how to find the median of a given dataset by using the
intersection of the cumulative frequency curves, enhancing our understanding of data distribution
and central tendency measures.

Introduction
The median is a key statistical measure that helps us understand the center of a dataset. Unlike
the average, which can be skewed by extremely high or low values, the median gives us a clearer
picture of what’s typical in a group. It represents the middle value when the data is sorted in
order.

Historical Background
The idea of the median has been around for a long time. In the 19th century, statisticians like
Karl Pearson began exploring different ways to summarize and analyze data. They realized that
the median could provide important insights, especially when dealing with data that has outliers
or is unevenly distributed.
As statistics evolved, the use of cumulative frequency distributions became popular. These
distributions help visualize how often certain values appear in a dataset, making it easier to
identify key statistics like the median. The cumulative frequency curve, or ogive, shows the total
number of observations up to a certain value, allowing us to see where the median lies.
Understanding the median and how to find it using cumulative frequency curves is important in
many fields, from economics to social sciences and health. This knowledge helps researchers and
decision-makers draw meaningful conclusions from data.
In this project, we will explore how to find the median using cumulative frequency curves,
offering a practical and straightforward approach to analyzing data.

Procedure
This section will guide you through the process of finding the median using cumulative
frequency curves, complete with the necessary mathematical calculations.
Step 1: Collect Data
Assume we have the following frequency data representing scores of students in a test:
 Score Intervals:

o 0-10
o 10-20
o 20-30
o 30-40
 Frequencies:

o 5 (for 0-10)
o 15 (for 10-20)
o 10 (for 20-30)
o 20 (for 30-40)
Step 2: Create a Cumulative Frequency Table
9. Calculate Cumulative Frequencies:

Frequenc
Score Interval y Cumulative Frequency (Less Than)
0-10 5 5
10-20 15 5 + 15 = 20
20-30 10 20 + 10 = 30
30-40 20 30 + 20 = 50
Cumulative Frequency Table:

Score
Interval Frequency Cumulative Frequency
0-10 5 5
 Score
Interval Frequency Cumulative Frequency
10-20 15 20
20-30 10 30
30-40 20 50
10. Calculate Cumulative Frequencies for "More Than":

Score Interval Frequency Cumulative Frequency (More Than)

0-10 5 50 - 5 = 45
10-20 15 50 - 20 = 30
20-30 10 50 - 30 = 20
30-40 20 50 - 50 = 0
More Than Cumulative Frequency Table:

Score Interval Frequency Cumulative Frequency (More Than)

0-10 5 45
10-20 15 30
20-30 10 20
30-40 20 0
Step 3: Plot the Cumulative Frequency Curves
 Less Than Curve: Plot cumulative frequency against the upper boundaries of the
intervals (10, 20, 30, 40).
 More Than Curve: Plot cumulative frequency against the lower boundaries of the
intervals (0, 10, 20, 30).
Step 4: Identify the Total Frequency
 Calculate the total frequency N :
N=5+ 15+10+20=50
Step 5: Locate the Median Position
 The median position can be calculated as:
N 50
Median Position = = =25
2 2
Step 6: Find the Point of Intersection
11. From the "Less Than" Cumulative Frequency:

o Look for the cumulative frequency closest to 25. It falls between the intervals 20
and 30.
12. From the "More Than" Cumulative Frequency:

o Similarly, look for the cumulative frequency closest to 25. It also falls between
the intervals 20 and 30.
13. Intersection:
 o The point where both curves intersect near the median position indicates the
median value.
Step 7: Determine the Median Value
 From the intersection, we can estimate that the median falls within the interval of 20-30.
To be more precise, we can interpolate if necessary, but generally, it suffices to say that
the median is approximately 25.

What the Graphs Show

 Less Than Curve: A blue curve showing the cumulative
frequency for scores up to each upper boundary.
 More Than Curve: A red curve showing the cumulative
frequency for scores from each lower boundary.
 Median Position: A dashed green line indicating the median
position at 25, where the curves intersect.
 Observation
1. Curve Shapes:
o The "less than" curve rises smoothly, showing how the
cumulative frequency increases as we look at higher score
ranges. It starts from zero and goes up to the total number of
scores.
o The "more than" curve slopes downward, starting from the
total frequency and decreasing as we move to higher score
intervals. This shows how many scores are above each range.
2. Finding the Median:
o The point where the two curves meet indicates the median. In
our example, this happens at the value of 25. This means that
half of the scores are below 25 and half are above it.
3. Understanding Data Distribution:
o The steepness of the curves gives us an idea of how scores
are spread out. If the "less than" curve rises quickly, it means
many students scored in that lower range.
4. Significance of the Median:
o The median is a good measure of central tendency because it
isn’t affected by extreme values, making it more reliable than
the average in some cases.
5. Visual Clarity:
o The graphs make it easy to see the overall pattern in the data.
Instead of just looking at numbers, we can visualize where
most scores fall and how they relate to each other.

Conclusion
 From this project, I learned some key things about finding the
median using cumulative frequency curves:
1. Importance of the Median:
o The median helps us understand the middle point of a dataset.
It shows where most of the values lie, especially when the
data isn’t evenly distributed.
2. Using Cumulative Frequency Curves:
o Creating "less than" and "more than" curves allows us to
visualize the data. It’s much easier to see how the scores add
up and where they meet, which helps us find the median.
3. Understanding Data Distribution:
o The shape of the curves shows how concentrated the scores
are. If the curve rises quickly, it means many scores fall into
a certain range.
4. Real-World Application:
o This method is useful in many areas, like education and
health, making it easier to analyze and understand data in a
practical way.
5. Value of Visualization:
o I realized how helpful graphs can be in statistics. They make
complex information clearer and easier to share with others.

Further Study
1. Use Different Data Sets:
o Try analyzing other types of data, like household incomes or
student grades. See how the median varies and what that tells
you about each group.
 2. Look at Other Averages:
o Explore other measures like the mean (average) and mode
(most common value). Compare these with the median to see
how they behave differently, especially when there are
outliers.
3. Learn About Quartiles:
o Dive into quartiles and percentiles, which can give more
detailed insights into data distribution. Understand how they
relate to the median and help us see the spread of data better.

End of Section B

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Wikipedia.com
Bitcit.com
Trinket.io
Studenthub.org
Aibuddy.com